EN中文

Journal of Resources and Ecology >

2025 , Vol. 16 >Issue 3: 898 - 906

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.025

Ecotourism

Impact of Climate Change on Ski Tourism: A Review

  • BAI Zhijian , 1, 2, * ,
  • ZHANG Yang 3
Expand
  • 1. School of Physical Education, Shaoguan University, Shaoguan, Guangdong 512005, China
  • 2. Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
  • 3. Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
* BAI Zhijian, E-mail:

Received date: 2024-03-12

  Accepted date: 2024-06-10

  Online published: 2025-05-28

Supported by

Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project of Hainan Province(HNSK(ZC)21-173)

Fold

Abstract

Climate change has become a significant global issue, impacting various sectors, including ski tourism. In recent years, the intersection between climate change and ski tourism has gained considerable attention. To explore this topic, we reviewed recent research papers published in recent years on ski tourism, snow, and ice sports, and climate change and selected the three dimensions of ski resorts, ski tourists, and governments and communities where ski resorts are located to summarize and analyze the literature from the perspective of stakeholders. The results revealed the following perspectives. First, climate change has led to reduced natural snowfall at ski resorts, resulting in shorter ski seasons. This has caused operational challenges, particularly for smaller, lower-altitude resorts, and decreased tourist satisfaction and loyalty, leading to fewer ski trips, shorter stays, and a shift toward alternative destinations. Additionally, ski tourism's decline negatively affects the economies and environments of the regions dependent on this industry. Second, strategies to mitigate climate change's impact on ski tourism are essential. Ski resorts can utilize artificial snowmaking equipment and the extension of effective skiing time. Ski tourists, following the leisure substitution theory, may shift their destinations or adjust their skiing schedules. Governments can counter the effects of climate change by developing infrastructure, integrating regional resources, and enhancing overall competitiveness.

Key words： climate change; ski tourism; climatic impacts

Cite this article

BAI Zhijian , ZHANG Yang . Impact of Climate Change on Ski Tourism: A Review[J]. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 2025 , 16(3) : 898 -906 . DOI: 10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.025

1 Introduction

Accumulating evidence demonstrates rapid and significant changes in the global climate. Ongoing greenhouse gas emissions are intensifying global warming, as emphasized in the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022). The report forecasts a continued temperature rise from 2021 to 2040, with temperatures projected to surpass the threshold of 1.5 ℃ or higher. Climate change, a key subject of interdisciplinary research, is amplifying various hazards that impact diverse aspects of life (Haron et al., 2023). Ski resorts globally are already feeling the effects, with shorter ski seasons and diminished snow Notably, during the winter of 2023, the Alps experienced record high temperatures over Christmas and New Year, reaching 20.9 ℃, as reported by BBC News (BBC, 2023).
Skiing, which has evolved from a professional sport into a popular leisure and tourism activity, draws many enthusiasts (Swedberg, 2017). Ski tourism originated in the late 19th century in Europe and the United States, initially focused on mountain skiing. Over time, it developed into a diverse combination of snow and ice sports, closely integrated with tourism, with skiing remaining a central element (Hofmann, 2012). Matzler et al. (2008) state that ski tourism is a form of traveling that has the main purpose of participating in skiing or watching skiing. Ski touring refers to traveling away from a current place of residence and participating in skiing and other related activities during the trip. This form of tourism relies on both natural and artificial resources. Tang et al. (2023) posits that ski tourism is a form of tourism reliant on natural or artificial ski landscapes, ski facilities, and other related resources. Known for its dependence on cold temperatures and snowfall, ski tourism is widely acknowledged as one of the tourism sectors most susceptible to environmental impacts (Steiger et al., 2019). According to the Global Snow and Mountain Tourism Report 2022, there are currently 5764 fully equipped, snow-covered, standard outdoor ski resorts in 68 countries, primarily concentrated in Alpine regions and the United States. Since 2000, ski resort visitation has shown fluctuations, largely influenced by weather conditions, with global visitation ranging between 350 million and 380 million annually (Laurent and Li., 2023). Despite strong demand, the ski tourism industry faces an unprecedented crisis due to climate change, particularly rising temperatures that reduce snow days and snow depth, significantly affecting ski resorts (Vaghefi et al., 2021). The tangible reality of shorter winters is increasingly evident (Bausch et al, 2019), prompting ski resorts to rely on artificial snowmaking as a last resort to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change (Moreno-Gené et al., 2018). However, artificial snowmaking raises operating costs and is controversial due to its environmental and resource-related concerns (Wang et al., 2020), leading to unpredictable losses in the ski tourism industry’s development (Gonseth, 2013). Furthermore, studies have examined effects of climate change from the perspective of a tourist. Pickering et al. (2010) reported that reduced natural snowfall could decrease visitor numbers at Australian ski resorts. Assuming very little natural snowfall over the next five winters, more than two-thirds of respondents (n = 236) said they would ski less frequently in Australia. Climate change may also affect tourists’ overnight stays (Rice et al., 2024) and their perceptions of the skiing experience (Damm et al., 2017).
In recent years, there has been increasing scholarly interest in the relationship between climate change and ski tourism. However, the existing literature has primarily focused on specific aspects of climate change’s impact on ski tourism, often relying on interviews or questionnaires to capture the perceptions of ski tourists or tourism destinations. There is still a lack of comprehensive and systematic review research on ski tourists. Despite the considerable number of research papers related to climate change and tourism, comprehension of the overall structural development of the nexus between climate change and ski tourism remains limited. Comprehensive literature reviews are needed to summarize and review the development of the industry and provide support for subsequent researchers.
In response to these gaps, this paper analyzes the effects of climate change on ski tourism using stakeholder theory. It focuses on three key dimensions: ski tourists, ski tourism destinations, and local governments or communities, providing a holistic explanation of the impacts of climate change. Additionally, coping strategies from these dimensions are reviewed to support the sustainable development of the ski tourism industry. The paper has two main objectives: the first objective is to provide a comprehensive overview of the impacts of climate change on ski tourism, and second objective is to identify strategies for addressing these impacts from various stakeholder perspectives, ultimately contributing to the healthy development of the industry.

2 Methodology

Scientometric analysis can be used to analyze the academic literature and understand the knowledge map of scientific fields as well as the current state of development, emerging trends, and fundamental changes in related fields (Johnson and Samakovlis, 2019; Jia et al., 2024). Various bibliometric visualization tools are utilized in academia, such as HistCite, VOSviewer, BibExcel, Sci2, and CiteSpace for scientific research (Yang et al., 2019). Among these tools, CiteSpace stands out due to its comprehensive features, including keyword clustering analysis, keyword prominence analysis, authors' collaboration analysis, authors’ country and unit analysis, and cocitation analysis (Chen et al., 2012). We entered keywords = (climate change, climate) and keywords = (ski touring, skiing) in the Web of Science core repository, and the search deadline was December 31, 2023. A total of 237 relevant studies were searched, and we restricted the language to English and the type of literature to articles, excluding nonscholarly types of research such as conference abstracts, letters, news, and briefs, and 19 articles that had very little relevance to the research topic of this paper. The research topic of this paper had very low relevance, and a total of 218 documents from 1996-2023 were ultimately screened. The numbers of publications, collaborations, cocitations, and copresentations in the field were also analyzed.

3 Research focus

3.1 Trends in research output

The annual number of publications can provide insights into the relationship between the volume of research output and time, offering a clear understanding of the field’s development trajectory and emerging trends. Figure 1 presents the papers related to climate change and ski tourism published over the 27-year period from 1996 to 2023. The publication trend during this period can be divided into three distinct stages. The first stage, from 1996 to 2008, marks the initial development phase, with only 13 articles published, accounting for 6% of the total. The limited number of publications during this period may reflect the early stages of research in this area, with relatively few scholars engaged in related studies. The second stage, from 2009 to 2018, represents a period of slow but steady growth, with 107 articles published, constituting 49% of the total output. This phase saw a surge in research activity, likely influenced by growing awareness of climate change impacts, potentially linked to the Paris Climate Agreement. The third stage, from 2019 to 2023, reflects a phase of stable development, with 98 articles published, representing 45% of the total. Research in this phase has remained consistent, with ongoing scholarly attention to the relationship between climate change and ski tourism.
Figure 1 The number of published papers on climate change and ski tourism (1996-2023)

3.2 Co-citation analysis

The data indicate that 686 references and 2359 cocitation links have been identified in studies on climate change and ski tourism from 1996 to 2023. The contour scores of the 14 largest clusters, which measure cluster homogeneity and consistency, all exceed 0.80, demonstrating their reliable quality and close proximity to the maximum score of 1.00. The largest cluster, #0 Midwestern Ski Industry, comprised 40 member references, larger than the other clusters. The subsequent clusters were #1 Key stakeholder and #2 Winter ski tourism comprising 31 and 30 member references, respectively. The most frequently cited document is an article by Steiger et al. (2019) published in Current Issues in Tourism with 55 citations.
The results show the distribution of journals cited in the field of climate change and ski tourism over the last 27 years. A total of 587 journals and 2574 interactions were connected. The ten journals with more than 90 citations and relatively high impact factors range from a high of 13.2 to a low of 1.97. Among these ten journals, five had impact scores of 8 or higher, with an average impact factor of 7.25. Tourism Management, Climate Research, and Climatic Change were the three most cited journals, with 153, 139, and 126 citations, respectively. Notably, Tourism Management and the Journal of Sustainable Tourism also serve as key nodes in the cocitation network, with centrality scores of 0.16 and 0.13, respectively, highlighting their pivotal roles in connecting research within this field.

3.3 Cooccurrence analysis

To examine the evolution of research and the dominant themes in the field of climate change and ski tourism, a keyword co-occurrence analysis was performed. As shown in Figure 2, the keyword co-occurrence network comprised 419 nodes and 1087 links, and the largest node was related to climate change. The top ten keywords were mentioned more than 67 times. The three most prominent keywords were climate change (144), change impact (122), and tourism (108). However, notably, only “change impact” exhibited the highest centrality of 0.21, indicating its pivotal role as a core node connecting with other keywords. In recent years, the focus of keywords has shifted to snow, snow production, behavioral adaptation, and sustainable tourism. Research has increasingly delved into topics such as snow quality, manmade snow, human adaptive behavior, and sustainable tourism. The concern regarding the environmental impact and potential solutions associated with these aspects is growing. The colors of these keywords represent research topics from different years that have had a significant impact on the field of climate change and ski tourism research.
Figure 2 Keywords in co-occurrence frequency

4 Impact of climate change on ski tourism destinations

4.1 Impact on the duration of skiing at ski tourism destinations

In the mid-1990s, Abegg et al. (1994) conducted a pioneering study on the effects of climate change on glacier skiing in Europe, focusing on Swiss glaciers. The study found that only two of the nine glacier ski resorts examined could sustain summer skiing over the following two decades. Beyond glacier skiing, increasing attention has been given to how climate change affects skiing durations at conventional ski resorts. A broader study involving 230 Swiss ski resorts revealed a 20% reduction in skiing duration for every 2 ℃ rise in temperature (Koenig and Abegg, 1997; Gonseth, 2013). Similarly, an analysis of Austrian ski resorts indicated that areas below 1500‒1600 m would struggle to receive reliable snowfall under a 2 ℃ increase (Steiger and Mayer, 2008).
Further studies have assessed the impacts of climate change on snow duration across a wider range of ski resorts. According to the “100-day rule” in the ski industry, resorts must maintain snow depths of over 30 cm for at least 100 days. Klein et al. (2016) analyzed snowpack data from 1970 to 2015 across 11 weather stations in the Alps, ranging from 1139 to 2540 m in altitude. The results showed that the duration of snowpack was significantly shorter at all weather stations, by an average of 8.9 days per decade. In addition to the European region, Hendrikx et al. (2013) conducted a study projecting the impact of climate change on the number of days with natural snowfall (measured at a standardized 30 cm snow depth) in New Zealand and Australia. In New Zealand, snowfall days are expected to decrease from 113‒125 to 99‒116 days by 2040 and to 52‒110 days by 2090. In Australia, the situation is more severe, with projections indicating a reduction from 94‒155 days to 81‒114 days by 2040 and to 0‒75 days by 2070 (Hendrikx et al., 2013). Across all regions, the reduced skiing duration caused by climate change is becoming a significant concern.

4.2 Impact on low-elevation ski resorts

Ski resorts are increasingly struggling with reduced natural snow coverage and shortened ski seasons, leading to significant economic challenges. Warmer winters accelerate glacier melting, altering precipitation patterns and causing reduced snowfall and shorter snowy seasons, which are the most prominent indicators of climate change (Hock et al., 2019). However, these effects vary across regions. Bausch et al. (2019) identified alpine winter destinations, especially lower-altitude ski resorts, as particularly vulnerable to climate change. Gilaberte-Búrdalo and López-Martín (2014) noted that a 2 ℃ or 4 ℃ rise in temperature would elevate the snowline by 300 and 600 meters, respectively. In addition, an increase in current temperatures of less than 1 ℃ may result in a significant loss of snowpack at altitudes <1400 m. Notably, at lower altitudes in the Alps, temperature changes have reduced the number of hours spent opening ski resorts, causing serious operational difficulties and leading to the closure of some small ski resorts (Gonseth, 2013; Tranos and Davoudi, 2014).
Despite these challenges, snowmaking technology has been proposed as a mitigating factor. Scott et al. (2003) first incorporated snowmaking technology into a vulnerability assessment of a ski area in Ontario (Canada). The potential impacts on ski season length were found to be much smaller when snowmaking equipment was available, but the costs were significantly greater. In New Hampshire, Hamilton et al. (2003) linked the decline of low-investment ski areas to climate change, as many small resorts struggled to remain open due to insufficient snow. Consequently, the industry has contracted to larger, better-capitalized, higher-elevation ski areas in the northern part of the state. In summary, climate change manifests itself through elevated temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, resulting in shorter snow seasons, accelerated snowmelt, reduced natural snowfall, and shorter durations of snowpack. These changes have harmed ski tourism destinations, leading to difficulties in the operation of ski resorts, particularly small ski resorts at low altitudes.

4.3 Impact on high-elevation ski resorts

Ski tourism, known for its temperature sensitivity, is highly vulnerable to global climate change (Scott et al., 2003; Hoogendoorn, 2021; Steiger and Abegg, 2013). A temperature increase of 0.9 ℃ to 2.3 ℃ is predicted to reduce snow duration by 44% at 1,500 meters and by 11% at 3000 m, demonstrating that even high-altitude resorts are affected (Steiger et al., 2019). Regional differences in snow reliability have been noted, with greater impacts on the Alpine fringe and eastern regions, while western and inner Alpine regions experience less severe effects (Spandre et al., 2019). Despite these challenges, high-altitude resorts may benefit during winters with scarce snowfall, as access and length of stay increase when lower-altitude resorts are unable to operate (Töglhofer et al., 2011). Beaudin and Huang (2014) further argue that reduced snowfall between 1970 and 2007 contributed to ski area closures in New England (USA); however, resorts at high elevations have faced comparatively smaller negative impacts. In rare instances, warmer temperatures have led to a 10%‒16% increase in turnover for high-altitude resorts, though the specific altitude thresholds for these benefits remain unclear. Overall, climate change impacts high-altitude ski resorts in both negative and positive ways, although the exact altitudinal range for positive effects requires further exploration.

5 Impact of climate change on ski tourists

5.1 Impact on ski tourist satisfaction

Climate change has prompted many ski resorts to increasingly rely on artificial snow due to advancements in snow- making technology. However, this has led to significant cost increases, which may directly impact tourist spending, reduce the perceived value for money, and lower ski tourist satisfaction (Steiger, 2012). Empirical studies, such as Bausch’s (2019) quantitative survey of winter holidaymakers in the Alps, confirm that environmental changes have negatively affected natural landscapes and raised prices without added value, decreasing tourist loyalty. Moreover, scholars argue that shorter ski seasons concentrate tourists, leading to overcrowding, higher risks, and poorer skiing experiences due to reduced snow conditions, further impacting satisfaction (Scott et al., 2020). Climate change has also been linked to increased skiing injuries, particularly orthopedic injuries, due to altered snow quality (Milan et al., 2017; Vabo et al., 2019). For example, British tourists prioritize beautiful environments, snow conditions, and piste quality in their satisfaction assessments, and Swedish resorts have successfully used these factors to attract British skiers, becoming their top destination (Rice et al., 2024). Overall, climate change significantly affects ski tourism experiences, leading to decreased demand, destination shifts, increased injury risks, and reduced tourist satisfaction.

5.2 Impact on ski tourist loyalty

The loyalty of ski tourists has been studied in two key areas:
loyalty to ski tourism itself and to specific ski resorts. Survey data from Austria and the northeastern United States indicate that a significant proportion of skiers (39% and 34%, respectively) intend to reduce their skiing activities, strongly suggesting climate-induced reductions in demand (Unbehaun, 2008; Dawson et al., 2013). Natural snow conditions also influence demand, with domestic tourists being more sensitive to snow variability than international visitors (Damm et al., 2017). In Australia, 38% of surveyed skiers reported they would opt to ski overseas if poor snow conditions persisted for five consecutive winters (Falk and Hagsten, 2016). Additionally, experienced ski tourists often select destinations based on snow quality, which is directly affected by climate change, altering the appeal of various locations (Buckley, 2017). Therefore, climate change may impact skier loyalty both to the activity itself and to specific ski resorts.

5.3 Impact on the behavior of ski tourists

Environmental changes driven by climate change significantly influence the demand for nature-based tourism, particularly in ski tourism (Welling et al., 2020). These impacts manifest through reductions in both day and overnight tourists. Studies have found fluctuations in the flow of ski tourists at five alpine ski resorts, occurring either on the same or consecutive days (Falk and Hagsten, 2016). In Zhangjiakou, China, research indicated that temperature changes had minimal impact on same-day visitors, as many were beginner skiers who did not require high-quality snow (Xiao et al., 2022).
The impact of climate change on overnight stays at ski resorts has been widely studied, with most reports focusing on Europe. Ski tourism in Europe is dominated by four Alpine countries—France, Italy, Austria, and Switzerland— which account for 83% of the total ski resort length (Ski Resort Services International Ltd, 2013). Natural snow depth significantly influences overnight stays in Austrian winter destinations (Falk, 2010; Töglhofer et al., 2011). However, Falk (2010) found that the direct effect is relatively modest, with a one standard deviation increase in snow depth resulting in only a 1.6% rise in overnight stays (Falk, 2010; Xiao et al., 2022). Interestingly, in high- altitude ski areas, overnight stays are negatively correlated with abundant snowfall, indicating that demand for such locations decreases during heavy snow winters (Töglhofer et al., 2011).
In Switzerland, Gonseth (2013) found that the impact of weather changes on overnight stays has remained relatively stable over the past decade. On a broader regional scale, Demiroglu et al. (2015) analyzed 119 ski resorts across the EU and discovered that snow depth significantly impacted overnight stays in 66 resorts. In the most sensitive areas, a one standard deviation decrease in snow depth led to a reduction in overnight stays of up to 15%. Additionally, Damm et al. (2017) projected that a +2 ℃ temperature rise could result in a loss of up to 10.1 million winter overnight stays in Europe, with Austria and Italy at the highest risk, while France and Switzerland are relatively less affected. These findings indicate that climate change will variably affect the number of overnight stays, depending on factors such as altitude and location.

6 Impact on governments and communities in ski tourism destinations

A reduction in the number of tourists and their length of stay directly impacts the economy of ski areas, local communities, and even national economies. Rosenberger et al. (2017) estimated the average consumer surplus value of a skier’s day at 77.63 USD. The national average loss of ski days for the period 2000‒2019 was 3.9% (2238000 ski days), leading to an annual consumer surplus loss of approximately 173.7 million USD. The annual financial loss to the U.S. ski industry is estimated at 252 million USD, surpassing 5 billion USD over the past two decades. By the 2050s, national losses are projected to more than double to 657 million USD under a low-emissions scenario and quintuple to 1.352 billion USD under a high-emissions scenario (Scott and Steiger, 2024). Climate change also has broader implications for ski resort communities. For instance, relative snowpack reliability is expected to increase in northern Sweden compared to the European Alps, which may lead to a shift in UK outbound ski tourists favoring Scandinavian destinations (Rice et al., 2024). The CEO of SkiStar, Scandinavia’s largest ski group, has noted that worsening conditions in the Alps could benefit the company (Rice et al., 2024). Thus, whether through reduced ski resort revenues or the cross-border migration of ski tourists, climate change will have significant economic impacts on both local communities and national economies.
In addition to economic impacts, the growing demand for water for snowmaking is a significant concern as climate change intensifies (Berard-Chenu et al., 2021; Spandre et al., 2019). This increasing water demand poses potential negative effects on downstream hydrological systems and may lead to conflicts with other water users, further exacerbating the challenges faced by nearby communities. The livelihoods of those in close proximity to ski resorts are particularly vulnerable to these changes. In 2018, three ski resorts in Colorado, one of the largest U.S. ski tourism markets, filed a lawsuit against ExxonMobil and Suncor (Canada) for their contributions to climate change in the region. Although the lawsuit was unsuccessful, it highlights a factor likely to influence these communities in the future (Scott and Steiger, 2024). While the effects on employment have been less frequently reported, the Scottish snow sports industry, which is valued at 40.13 million USD and supports over 600 jobs, is currently experiencing a decline, according to a report by Tourism Resources (2011) ①

7 Strategies to cope with the impact of climate change on the ski tourism industry

7.1 Coping strategies for ski tourism destinations

7.1.1 Increasing artificial snow

Ski tourism, as a diverse industry catering to a wide range of enthusiasts, faces significant challenges due to the impacts of climate change. Imperatively, ski tourism companies must adopt quality business strategies and enhance their product offerings to adapt to these changes (Bausch and Unseld, 2018). The primary focus of ski tourism companies is on maintaining the reliability of snow resources and extending the ski season (Damm et al., 2017), while also emphasizing sustainable profitability goals (Ballotta, 2020).
One key strategy is extending the effective ski season to ensure the continued viability of ski tourism activities (Buckley et al., 2017). Artificial snowmaking has emerged as the most commonly used measure to achieve this (Wang et al., 2020; Falk and Hagsten, 2016). For example, Steiger et al. (2019) conducted a survey in Austria and found that more than half of ski resorts are expected to double or triple their artificial snowmaking capacity with a 2 ℃ increase in temperatures. In the German and French Alps, around 18% and 20% of ski resorts are currently equipped with snowmaking facilities (VDS, 2013). However, the capital investment required for artificial snowmaking is substantial, and not all resorts are equipped The long-term profitability of artificial snowmaking renovations is uncertain and is at significant risk (Bausch and Gartner, 2020). Hence, questions have arisen about the sustainability and long-term profitability of snowmaking technology have been questioned (Scott et al., 2019). Therefore, the only way to achieve profitability is to grasp the balance of artificial snowmaking. In addition to the fact that snowmaking can extend service hours, the construction of ski resorts at high altitudes is often seen as another strategy to extend ski service hours (Dawson et al., 2013).

7.1.2 Development of new tourism services and products

The development of new tourism services and products can enhance the adaptability of ski tourism destinations in response to shorter snow seasons caused by climate change. A survey indicated that, even in the Alpine region, a well-known ski destination, tourists are motivated by a variety of activities, such as winter hiking, landscape viewing, and hot spring visits. This highlights the need to diversify winter sports tourism offerings beyond traditional skiing (Bausch and Gartner, 2020). Accordingly, various alternative winter tourism products, such as indoor ice skating, snowshoeing, and winter photography, can be introduced. Furthermore, ski resorts have expanded their business models to offer summer tourism services (Needham et al., 2004) or develop all-season tourism products, transitioning ski resorts into mountain resorts (Buckley, 2017). Consequently, the management of outdoor recreational activities in snow and ice tourism should incorporate flexibility by exploring alternative activities that are less affected by climate change (Damm et al., 2017; Schrot et al., 2019). Offsetting the decline in winter ski tourism with year-round tourism offerings can contribute to overall profitability.

7.2 Coping strategies for ski tourists

Iso-Ahola (1986) proposed the theory of leisure substitution behavior, which suggests that when an original leisure activity becomes unavailable, individuals substitute it either spatially, temporally, or with alternative activities. Steiger et al. (2019) found that spatial substitution is the most common response among ski tourists when they encounter undesirable ski conditions. In such cases, tourists often opt for other ski areas within the region or in different countries. The proportion of skiers engaging in spatial substitution varies by nationality, with 49% in Switzerland, 61% in Canada (Rutty et al., 2015), 63% in Australia (Koenig, 1999), and 68% in Austria (Unbehaun et al., 2008). A case for time substitution was outlined by Rutty et al. (2015), who argue that if the current time slot is overcrowded, most individuals will choose another time slot to do so, leading to differences in time-substitution behavior across days. In a survey of Australian research, Koenig (1999) noted that substitution behaviors depend on skill level, with beginners more likely to stop skiing altogether, while expert skiers are more likely to spatially substitute by skiing abroad. In the limited literature on substitution behaviors, Scottish ski tourists indicated a preference for alternative activities such as winter walking or mountain biking if skiing was unavailable (Hopkins and Maclean, 2014). Overall, the literature largely emphasizes spatial substitution, both within regions and across national borders.

7.3 Coping strategies for the government and community

The government’s and community’s response has largely focused on enhancing competitiveness by improving infrastructure and integrating regional resources. Hopkins (2014) notes that in response to climate change in Queenstown, New Zealand, strategies should involve making the region a year-round destination with diverse attractions such as adventure activities (rafting, bungee jumping, jet skiing), wine tours, and historical experiences. Ensuring the sustainability of tourism in Queenstown and New Zealand requires greater academic attention, particularly in integrating adaptation strategies and resource management to mitigate climate change impacts.
The development of the Scandinavian Mountains Airport (SMA) is supported by a leading Swedish ski tourism company as well as state and municipal agencies. The airport, which includes a government grant of SEK 250 million, will be effective in increasing the number of domestic and international tourists, especially from Germany, Denmark, and the UK (Demiroglu et al., 2019).
Moreover, governments are beginning to address the root causes of climate change in ski destinations. Sweden is expanding electric vehicle charging infrastructure, adopting electric transport, reducing carbon emissions, and incorporating low-carbon snowmaking technologies to decrease the carbon footprint of winter tourism (Demiroglu et al., 2020). Additionally, in June 2021, the G7 proposed mandatory climate risk disclosures for listed companies. Decision makers such as investors and lenders, property developers, and snowmaking and lift equipment manufacturers have requested data on the consequences of climate change at the regional and individual ski resort scale (Rice et al., 2021).

8 Limitations and future research

Ski tourism, a globally popular recreational sport, continues to grow in popularity. As a result, further research on the impacts of climate change on the ski tourism industry is essential. However, current research on this topic is primarily conducted by authors and institutions from developed countries in Europe and the United States, with case studies focused on these regions. There is a lack of attention to the development of the ski tourism industry in developing countries such as China, Russia, and Pakistan, despite these nations having a large base of ski tourism enthusiasts and rich resources for winter sports tourism. Given this gap, future research could benefit from a comprehensive review of climate change and ski tourism literature in non-English languages, such as Chinese or those from emerging ski markets. Additionally, this study is not comprehensive enough to select stakeholders—only ski resorts, tourists, and the government and community were included. Hence, subsequent studies can add stakeholders, such as practitioners and the transport industry.

9 Conclusions

Despite the increasing relevance of climate change and ski tourism research, no comprehensive literature review has been conducted in this area. This review analyzes 218 publications on climate change and ski tourism from 1996 to 2023 in the WOS core database, providing a thorough overview of research trends, development patterns, and key areas of focus. The study adopts a stakeholder-centric approach, examining the literature through the perspectives of three key groups: major ski resorts, ski tourists, and local government and communities surrounding the resorts. It highlights the varied impacts of climate change on the ski tourism industry and the strategic responses to these challenges. This research serves as an indispensable compendium for scholars, industry leaders, and practitioners, offering a panoramic view of the sector's current state and prospective evolution in the nexus of climate change and ski tourism. It underpins subsequent scholarly work with a solid theoretical framework, thereby filling a significant gap in the existing body of literature.

Acknowledgments

We thank the editors and reviewers for their helpful suggestions.

References

Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within
[1]
Abegg B, König U, Maisch M. 1994. Climate change and glacier skiing tourism. Geographica Helvetica, 49(3): 103-114. (in German)

[2]
Ballotta L, Fusai G, Kyriakou I, et al. 2020. Risk management of climate impact for tourism operators: An empirical analysis on ski resorts. Tourism Management, 77: 104011. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2019.104011.

[3]
Bausch T, Gartner W C. 2020. Winter tourism in the European Alps: Is a new paradigm needed? Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 31: 100297. DOI: 10.1016/j.jort.2020.100297.

[4]
Bausch T, Humpe A, Gössling S. 2019. Does climate change influence guest loyalty at alpine winter destinations? Sustainability, 11(15): 4233. DOI: 10.3390/su11154233.

[5]
Bausch T, Unseld C. 2018. Winter tourism in Germany is much more than skiing! Consumer motives and implications to Alpine destination marketing. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 24(3): 203-217.

[6]
BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). 2023. How climate change threatens to close ski resorts, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20230124. Viewed on 2024-12-10.

[7]
Beaudin L, Huang J C. 2014. Weather conditions and outdoor recreation: A study of New England ski areas. Ecological Economics, 106: 56-68.

[8]
Berard-Chenu L, Cognard J, François H, et al. 2021. Do changes in snow conditions have an impact on snowmaking investments in French Alps ski resorts? International Journal of Biometeorology, 65: 659-675.

[9]
Buckley R. 2017. Perceived resource quality as a framework to analyze impacts of climate change on adventure tourism: Snow, surf, wind, and whitewater. Tourism Review International, 21(3): 241-254.

[10]
Chen C, Hu Z, Liu S, et al. 2012. Emerging trends in regenerative medicine: A scientometric analysis in CiteSpace. Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy, 12(5): 593-608.

[11]
Damm A, Greuell W, Landgren O, et al. 2017. Impacts of +2 ℃ global warming on winter tourism demand in Europe. Climate Services, 7: 31-46.

[12]
Dawson J, Scott D, Havitz M. 2013. Skier demand and behavioral adaptation to climate change in the US Northeast. Leisure/Loisir, 37(2): 127-143.

[13]
Demiroglu O C, Kučerová J, Ozcelebi O. 2015. Snow reliability and climate elasticity: Case of a Slovak ski resort. Tourism Review, 70(1): 1-12.

[14]
Demiroglu O C, Lundmark L, Saarinen J, et al. 2020. The last resort? Ski tourism and climate change in Arctic Sweden. Journal of Tourism Futures, 6(1): 91-101.

[15]
Demiroglu O C, Lundmark L, Strömgren M. 2019. Development of downhill skiing tourism in Sweden:Past, present, and future. In: Winter tourism:Trends and challenges. Wallingford, UK: CABI.

[16]
Falk M. 2010. A dynamic panel data analysis of snow depth and winter tourism. Tourism Management, 31(6): 912-924.

[17]
Falk M, Hagsten E. 2016. Importance of early snowfall for Swedish ski resorts: Evidence based on monthly data. Tourism Management, 53: 61-73.

[18]
Gilaberte-Búrdalo M, López-Martín F, Pino-Otin M R, et al. 2014. Impacts of climate change on the ski industry. Environmental Science & Policy, 44: 51-61.

[19]
Gonseth C. 2013. Impact of snow variability on the Swiss winter tourism sector: Implications in an era of climate change. Climatic Change, 119(2): 307-320.

[20]
Hamilton L C, Rohall D, Hayward G, et al. 2003. Warming winters and New Hampshire’s lost ski areas: An integrated case study. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 23(10): 52-73.

[21]
Haron N A, Alias A H, Law T H. 2023. Knowledge map of climate change and transportation: A bibliometric analysis based on CiteSpace. Atmosphere, 14(3): 434. DOI: 10.3390/atmos14030434.

[22]
Hendrikx J, Zammit C, Hreinsson E Ö, et al. 2013. A comparative assessment of the potential impact of climate change on the ski industry in New Zealand and Australia. Climatic Change, 119: 965- 978.

[23]
Hock R, Bliss A, Marzeion B E N, et al. 2019. GlacierMIP—A model intercomparison of global-scale glacier mass-balance models and projections. Journal of Glaciology, 65(251): 453-467.

[24]
Hofmann A R. 2012. Bringing the Alps to the city: Early indoor winter sports events in the modern city of the twentieth century. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(14): 2050-2066.

[25]
Hoogendoorn G, Stockigt L, Saarinen J, et al. 2021. Adapting to climate change: The case of snow-based tourism in Afriski, Lesotho. African Geographical Review, 40(1): 92-104.

DOI

[26]
Hopkins D. 2014. The sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies in New Zealand’s ski industry: A range of stakeholder perceptions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(1): 107-126.

[27]
Hopkins D, Maclean K. 2014. Climate change perceptions and responses in Scotland’s ski industry. Tourism Geographies, 16(3): 400-414.

[28]
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2022. Sixth assessment report: Fact sheet. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2022/04/AR6_Factsheet_April_2022.pdf. Viewed on 2024-04-15.

[29]
Iso-Ahola S E. 1986. A theory of substitutability of leisure behavior. Leisure Sciences, 8(4): 367-389. DOI: 10.1080/01490408609513081.

[30]
Jia Z, Yang X C, Chen A, et al. 2024. Localized eco-climatic impacts of onshore wind farms: A review. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 15(1): 151-160.

DOI

[31]
Johnson A G, Samakovlis I. 2019. A bibliometric analysis of knowledge development in smart tourism research. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 10(4): 600-623.

[32]
Klein G, Vitasse Y, Rixen C, et al. 2016. Shorter snow cover duration since 1970 in the Swiss Alps due to earlier snowmelt more than to later snow onset. Climatic Change, 139: 637-649.

[33]
Koenig U, Abegg B. 1997. Impacts of climate change on winter tourism in the Swiss Alps. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5(1): 46-58.

[34]
Koenig U. 1999. Climate change and snow tourism in Australia. Geographica Helvetica, 54(3): 147-157.

[35]
Laurent V, Li Y. 2023. Current Situation and future development trend of global skiing tourism market. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 14(1): 207-216.

DOI

[36]
Matzler K, Füller J, Renzl B, et al. 2008. Customer satisfaction with Alpine ski areas: The moderating effects of personal, situational, and product factors. Journal of Travel Research, 46(4): 403-413.

[37]
Milan M, Jhajj S, Stewart C, et al. 2017. Helmet use and injury severity among pediatric skiers and snowboarders in Colorado. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 52(2): 349-353.

DOI PMID

[38]
Moreno-Gené J, Sánchez-Pulido L, Cristobal-Fransi E, et al. 2018. The economic sustainability of snow tourism: The case of ski resorts in Austria, France, and Italy. Sustainability, 10(9): 3012. DOI: 10.3390/su10093012.

[39]
Needham M D, Wood C J, Rollins R B. 2004. Understanding summer visitors and their experiences at the Whistler Mountain ski area, Canada. Mountain Research and Development, 24(3): 234-242.

[40]
Pickering C M, Castley J G, Burtt M. 2010. Skiing less often in a warmer world: Attitudes of tourists to climate change in an Australian ski resort. Geographical Research, 48(2): 137-147.

[41]
Rice H, Cohen S A, Scott D. 2024. Perceptions of climate change risk and sustainable adaptations in the Swedish ski industry. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(2): 402-418.

[42]
Rice H, Cohen S, Scott D, et al. 2021. Climate change risk in the Swedish ski industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 25(17): 2805-2820.

[43]
Rosenberger R S, White E M, Kline J D, et al. 2017. Recreation economic values for estimating outdoor recreation economic benefits from the National Forest System. General Technical Report, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Report Number 957. Portland, USA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.

[44]
Rutty M, Scott D, Johnson P, et al. 2015. Behavioural adaptation of skiers to climatic variability and change in Ontario, Canada. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 11: 13-21.

[45]
Schrot O G, Christensen J H, Formayer H. 2019. Greenland winter tourism in a changing climate. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 27: 100224. DOI: 10.1016/j.jort.2019.100224.

[46]
Scott D, McBoyle G, Mills B. 2003. Climate change and the skiing industry in southern Ontario (Canada): Exploring the importance of snowmaking as a technical adaptation. Climate Research, 23(2): 171-181.

[47]
Scott D, Steiger R. 2024. How climate change is damaging the US ski industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 27(22): 3891-3907.

[48]
Scott D, Steiger R, Dannevig H, et al. 2020. Climate change and the future of the Norwegian alpine ski industry. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(19): 2396-2409.

[49]
Scott D, Steiger R, Rutty M, et al. 2019. The differential futures of ski tourism in Ontario (Canada) under climate change: The limits of snowmaking adaptation. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(11): 1327-1342.

[50]
Spandre P, François H, Verfaillie D, et al. 2019. Climate controls on snow reliability in French Alps ski resorts. Scientific Reports, 9(1): 8043. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44068-8.

[51]
Steiger R. 2012. Scenarios for skiing tourism in Austria: Integrating demographics with an analysis of climate change. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(6): 867-882.

[52]
Steiger R, Abegg B. 2013. The sensitivity of Austrian ski areas to climate change. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(4): 480-493.

[53]
Steiger R, Mayer M. 2008. Snowmaking and climate change. Mountain Research and Development, 28(3): 292-298.

[54]
Steiger R, Scott D, Abegg B, et al. 2019. A critical review of climate change risk for ski tourism. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(11): 1343-1379.

DOI

[55]
Swedberg A M, Wijdicks C A, LaPrade R F, et al. 2017. Alpine skiing and snowboarding:Current trends and future directions. In: Feletti (ed.). Extreme Sports Medicine. Germany: Springer.

[56]
Tang C C, Xiao X Y, Qin S. 2023. Research on ice and snow tourism in China: connotation analysis, vein sorting and system construction. Geography Research, 42(2): 332-351. (in Chinese)

[57]
Töglhofer C, Eigner F, Prettenthaler F. 2011. Impacts of snow conditions on tourism demand in Austrian ski areas. Climate Research, 46(1): 1-14.

[58]
Tranos E, Davoudi S. 2014. The regional impact of climate change on winter tourism in Europe. Tourism Planning & Development, 11(2): 163-178.

[59]
Unbehaun W, Pröbstl U, Haider W. 2008. Trends in winter sport tourism: Challenges for the future. Tourism Review, 63(1): 36-47.

[60]
Vabo S, Steen K, Brudvik C, et al. 2019. Fractures diagnosed in primary care—A five-year retrospective observational study from a Norwegian rural municipality with a ski resort. Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care, 37(4): 444-451.

[61]
Vaghefi S A, Muccione V, van Ginkel K C, et al. 2021. Using Decision Making under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) approaches to support climate change adaptation of Swiss ski resorts. Environmental Science & Policy, 126: 65-78.

[62]
VDS (Verband deutscher Seilbahnen). 2013. Questions and answers on the topic of snow cover. http://www.seilbahnen.de/fragen-und-antworten-zumthema-beschneiung. Viewed on 2024-12-10. (in German)

[63]
Wang P, Zhu Z, Fei Y. 2020. The environmental early warning management of water resources carrying capacity of ski resorts in China. Journal of Coastal Research, 115(SI): 430-433. (in Chinese)

[64]
Welling J, Árnason Þ, Ólafsdóttir R. 2020. Implications of climate change on nature-based tourism demand: A segmentation analysis of glacier site visitors in southeast Iceland. Sustainability, 12(13): 5338. DOI: 10.3390/su12135338.

[65]
Xiao X, Li Y P, Li Y Q. 2022. Ski tourism experience and market segmentation from the perspective of perceived value: A case study on Chongli District of Zhangjiakou. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 13(4): 655-666.

DOI

[66]
Yang Y, Reniers G, Chen G, et al. 2019. A bibliometric review of laboratory safety in universities. Safety Science, 120: 14-24.

DOI

Options
Outlines

/

〈 〉