Red tourism in China refers to the activities of sightseeing, learning, and engaging in nostalgia at socialist heritage sites such as monuments, memorials, museums, and other relevant locations (Su et al., 2024). It is recognized as a form of cultural heritage tourism (Winter, 2009; Chai, 2020). By 2018, red tourism had achieved remarkable success, as it had attracted 660 million domestic tourists at that point and generated a total revenue of 425.7 billion yuan (Tang et al., 2021). However, while red tourism provides significant economic benefits, its primary purpose is to strengthen China’s national identity and help the national government attain political legitimacy (Wall and Zhao, 2017). MRTEs are believed to be one of the important elements for achieving this political purpose of red tourism, because the long-lasting impact of MRTEs can enhance the perception of red culture among tourists even after their trips.

The literature on red tourism has evolved significantly, transitioning from early studies on resource development, marketing strategies, and growth patterns to more complex discussions on innovation, collaborative development, causal relationships, and social impacts (Dai and Ma, 2021; Wang et al., 2022). Recent research has also emphasized red tourism resource networks and high-quality development (Calderon-Fajardo, 2023; Wang et al., 2023). This indicates a research trend from a macro-level perspective focused on government policies to a meso-level perspective centered on destination management. However, the tourism experience is the cornerstone of tourism research. With the diversification and personalization of tourists’ demands for red tourism, research on red tourism experiences from a micro-perspective should receive more attention (Juan, 2022).

Scholarly inquiry into the realm of red tourism experience has begun to explore three principal dimensions. Initially, the state-led character of red tourism has steered academic attention toward a micro-level deconstruction of political identification, national identity, and cultural identity among its visitors (Liu et al., 2021; Dong and Wang, 2024). One example is Fu’s (2022) examination of the role of symbolic interaction in cultural identity, which revealed that such interaction is instrumental in enhancing the tourists' affiliation with red culture. Subsequently, a subset of studies has concentrated on the refinement and enhancement of the red tourism experience. Concurrently, other research efforts have delved into the design of red tourism products or the enrichment of the red tourism experience within specific contexts, with the city of Zunyi serving as a focal example. Ultimately, a corpus of research has emerged that evaluates the satisfaction, loyalty, and happiness derived from red tourism experiences (Chen and Liu, 2020; Wang et al., 2023). Despite these advancements, the unique characteristics of red tourism require a deeper focus on the experiences themselves, particularly those that are memorable (Li and Zhang, 2022). Understanding the components of MRTEs is essential for several reasons. For governments, it offers a way to assess the effectiveness of political objectives. For businesses, it provides insights into designing products that emotionally engage visitors. Ultimately, fostering MTEs can enhance visitor satisfaction, loyalty, and overall well-being, thereby contributing to the long-term success of red tourism destinations.

Since the concept of the experience economy was introduced by Pine and Gilmore (1999), de Freitas Coelho et al. (2018) emphasized that tourist experiences constitute a core aspect of the tourism industry. Products and services alone are insufficient to generate economic prosperity in the tourism industry (Ayob et al., 2013). A tourism experience is a complex combination of distinct and subjective elements that influence the tourists’ emotions and attitudes toward their visit (Chen et al., 2020). Not all tourism experiences are equally memorable, and only those that are selectively renewed based on a consumer’s evaluation of their components become MTEs (Kim and Ritchie, 2014). Consequently, a memorable travel experience is deeply personalized and can be regarded as a singular subjective episode within an individual's life narrative. Such experiences are encoded in long-term memory as integral components of a person’s autobiographical memory. The tourism experience unfolds in a sequential travel stage, including before, during, and after the trip, which reflects the spatial and temporal variations along the travel continuum (Kim and Chen, 2018). However, current academic research focuses on the during stage and often neglects the post-trip memories that play a critical role in shaping MTEs. Facilitating MTEs is important for tourist destinations, as these experiences contribute to a competitive advantage, increased revenue, and enhanced tourist destination loyalty (Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Understanding post-trip memories, along with the other stages, can help destinations design more impactful and lasting tourism experiences.

The concept of MTE was first introduced by Kim in 2010, with early research focusing on the influence of memory-related factors on MTEs (Kim, 2014). Along with the development of this concept, an increasing number of studies have examined the nature and cognitive processes underpinning MTEs (Zhou et al., 2022b). Recently, scholars have explored the components of MTEs across various contexts, such as memorable accommodation experiences (Sthapit et al., 2021; Loehr et al., 2023) and memorable culinary experiences (Huang et al., 2019). While substantial attention has been given to defining the dimensions and developing scales to measure MTEs, the findings remain inconsistent (Hosany et al., 2022). For instance, Tung and Ritchie (2011) suggested four fundamental dimensions of MTEs, including affect, expectations, consequentiality, and recollection. Kim (2014) developed a scale for measuring MTEs with seven dimensions (hedonism, refreshment, local culture, meaningfulness, involvement, knowledge, and novelty) on a 24-item scale. Although these researchers have explored different dimensions of MTEs in various contexts, the variations in scales indicate that the concept of MTE is complex and lacks a widely accepted method of measurement. Red tourism destinations offer a distinctive experience rooted in their political significance and communist historical and cultural heritage (Li et al., 2010). This uniqueness enables red tourism to provide differentiated and memorable experiences, so tourists may perceive memorable experiences in red tourism differently from general MTEs. Therefore, exploring the formation and key elements of memorable experiences is essential, specifically within the red tourism context.

Given the highly subjective nature of MTEs, researchers must examine how the tourists’ personal interpretations and meanings shape their experiences. Traditional standardized scales are insufficient to capture the complexity of MTEs. Contextual differences can cause these scales to overlook the variations in factors contributing to MTEs, resulting in oversimplified conclusions. In addition, the subjective nature of MTEs allows for the identification of new components that may extend beyond predefined dimensions within specific contexts. To address these challenges, this study employed the Q methodology, a research approach designed to explore subjective perspectives (Brown, 1996). The Q methodology is particularly well-suited for investigating MTEs in red tourism destinations because it emphasizes individual perspectives and subjective differences. By using this approach, this study aims to enrich the understanding of red tourism and MTEs, and to provide meaningful insights that account for the diversity and depth of individual experiences.

The Q method was implemented through the Q-concourse to identify a comprehensive concourse of opinions and thoughts shared in the previous literature and collected for this Q study (Watts and Stenner, 2005). The concourse of this study was derived from previous studies of red tourism experiences, general memorable tourism experience scales, the Chinese government’s relevant documents on red tourism, and online posts about tours to red tourism destinations. In the initial phase of this study, a comprehensive set of 71 items was generated, corresponding to 17 distinct construct domains. These 17 construct domains are red heroes, red spirit, red historical sites and relics, involvement, meaningfulness, knowledge, refreshment, novelty, hedonism, adverse feeling, social activity, supporting factors, destination management, destination policy, planning, environment, and service quality.

To further explore red tourism experiences, a series of in-depth interviews were conducted, each lasting approximately one hour, along with two focus group discussions, each comprising three participants. All participants were individuals who had participated in red tourism within the past six months. The interviews were structured around 23 questions, the specifics of which are detailed in Appendix 1. The purpose of these sessions was to explore and document the participants’ experiences with red tourism. Data saturation was reached by the tenth interview, as no new insights regarding red tourism experiences were forthcoming. The 16 participants represented a diverse range of disciplines and ages from 18 to 60 years, and included nine females and seven males. The qualitative data from the interviews were analyzed using NVivo 12.0 software to ensure a rigorous and systematic approach. In this process, the 17 elements derived from the first step were used as nodes to categorize the red tourism experiences mentioned by the participants and to identify any new ones. Ultimately, this study gathered approximately 85 written statements across 19 domains, including the economic affordability and tourism image domains that were not identified in either the literature review or the content analysis of documents and online posts.

After constructing the Q-concourse, the research team and two field experts conducted a thorough analysis of the 85 statements. The two experts helped to increase the reliability of the analysis. This process involved consolidating statements with similar meanings and removing those that did not reflect the tourist’s perspective. This procedure ultimately identified a total of 41 statements. Subsequently, four bilingual students proficient in both English and Chinese translated these 41 statements into English for a pretest. Based on the feedback provided by the students in the pretest process, some statements were then divided or merged, resulting in the final set of 38 statements included in this study.

Previous studies have suggested that the Q method should take a small number of representative data points as samples, with “a diverse non-random selection” used as the sampling technique (Fairweather and Swaffield, 2001). The recommended sample size is relatively small, typically between 20 and 60, because small samples can generate typical response patterns related to the issue, whereas larger sample sizes carry the risk of negating any complexities and fine distinctions (Shen et al., 2020). The participants in this study had at least one red tourism site experience within the previous six months, and they were recruited through WeChat, local communities, and social networks. Recruitment letters were posted in the WeChat group and local communities to solicit participants. Individuals who met the requirements were added to the author’s WeChat and subsequently joined a preliminary Q-sorting group. Ultimately, 31 participants with diverse occupations and ages were selected. These participants were provided with information about the study’s objectives and methods, and Q-sorting interviews were scheduled.

A Q method study can be conducted in person or through an online platform (Watts and Stenner, 2005). For this study, 38 statements from the Q-samples were uploaded onto a website, and four respondents participated in a pilot study. The results indicated that all statements and survey questions were ready for formal data collection. This study was conducted through an online panel (https://qmethodsoftware.com/). The Q-sorting process for participants involved four stages. First, respondents were asked to provide personal information, including age, gender, the destination of their most recent red tourism trip, duration, travel method, expenses, and other relevant details. This step aimed to enhance their recall of their most recent red tourism experience, to facilitate the sorting process and ensure it was based on their real experiences. Second, participants accessed the webpage and read all statements thoroughly. Clarifications were offered as necessary to ensure better understanding. To prevent any influence on the categorizations made by participants, researchers refrained from offering extraneous explanations. Third, after the participants finished reading, they were directed to sort all 38 statements into three preliminary categories: “agree,” “neutral,” and “disagree.” Following this process, participants were asked to rank the sorted statements in a distribution chart (Figure 1), which used an 11-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The participants needed to evaluate the statements as a whole and were forced to rank them, thereby revealing their subjective views. There is no one-size-fits-all Q sorting chart, and researchers generally design the chart for their study based on the total number of statements. Fourth, a post interview was conducted following the Q-sorting chart activity to explore the participants’ reasoning behind their sorting of statements ranked as “strongly agree” and “strongly disagree” for additional interpretation. These responses were recorded as supplementary material and used to provide a deeper understanding of the participants’ subjective perceptions (Brown, 1996). The overall duration of the sorting process for each participant varied from approximately 30 to 60 minutes. The sorting process occurred from September to October 2022.

Ken-Q software was used to process the collected data. A four-factor solution was determined to be the most suitable based on the explained total variance, the number of subjects loaded on each factor, and the correlation matrix (Watts and Stenner, 2005). Eigenvalues were calculated to evaluate the significance of each factor, and only factors with eigenvalues exceeding two were retained (Watts and Stenner, 2005). Varimax factor analysis was performed using the different roles played by participants as variables (Shen et al., 2020).

A total of 31 participants were involved in Q-sorting, comprising 67.74% males and 32.36% females. Their ages ranged from 16 to 66 years, and participants were selected from diverse occupational backgrounds to ensure wide representation. Their income levels also spanned various classes. Table 1 presents further information regarding the demographics of the participants.

In researching the types of red tourists, Xu (2015) observed a higher number of male participants engaged in red tourism compared to females. This trend emerged due to a considerable segment of the market originating from group tours, public institutions, and employees of large state- owned enterprises. Given the focus of this study on indi- viduals who have engaged in red tourism within the last five years, the participants in the Q-sort also shared the characteristics of these major tourist populations.

Ken-Q web (version 1.0.7) was employed for data analysis. A total of 38 Q-sorts were coded and processed, from which four MRTE factors were extracted, explaining 58% of the total variance (Tables 2 and 4). The four factors were selected based on the following criteria: variance level above 50%, an eigenvalue above one (McKeown and Thomas, 1988), a minimum of two opinions per factor, and a correlation between factors of less than 0.5 (Watts and Stenner, 2005). The team derived the significance level from the standard error formula of 1/ \sqrt{N}, where N equals the number of items in the Q method. The value obtained for the 38 items in this study was 0.162, and at the 0.01 level of confidence this value was multiplied by 2.58 to set the significance level at 0.419. Thus, loadings had to be 0.419 or above to be determined as significant.

The four factors extracted from the Q-sorts were further analyzed. They proved to be more representative of factor characteristics because they encompassed a larger number of sorts and aligned better with the research objectives. Factor 1 accounted for 42% of the variance with 23 loaded sorts, whereas Factor 2 explained 6% with two loaded sorts. Factors 3 and 4 accounted for 6% and 4% of the variance, with four and two loaded sorts each, respectively (Tables 2 and 3).

As shown in Table 4, the factor correlations demonstrated positive discriminant validity of the four-factor solution, with low correlation coefficients ranging from 0.01 to 0.31, indicating that each factor was distinct.

The Q-sorts of the 31 participants were analyzed to identify the MRTE. The top three and bottom three Q-sort statements were used to define the experience categories and distinguish them from each other, as they represent the most and least important experiences, respectively. Based on this approach, four MRTE categories were identified, as shown in Table 5.

This study examined four main categories of MRTEs which differ from the seven dimensions proposed by Kim (2014) and the MTE dimensions of national parks measured by Bigne et al. (2020). For example, in the context of national parks, hedonism is the most frequently reported MTE dimension, followed by novelty and involvement. Notably, local culture was the least frequently reported. In contrast, red tourism places a strong emphasis on cultural experiences.

The observation that identity experience is the most dominant RMTE dimension is not surprising, because local governments often use cultural heritage as a tool to promote red culture and reinforce authority (Santa and Tiatco, 2019). As a form of cultural heritage, red tourism is centered around the revolutionary spirit and culture. Through these intangible resources and touchable entities, tourists can perceive the spirit of red culture, awakening the hidden political and national memories within these spaces (Xu, 2016). These memories can make tourists feel a strong connection to the nation’s past, eliciting resonance between the individual and the nation (Xu, 2015). This experience can lead to the development of a sense of nationalism, patriotism, cultural identity, and affiliation with the Communist Party (Zuo et al., 2017; Dong and Wang, 2024).

The cost-effective experience indicates that tourists find admission, transportation, and accommodation to be budget-friendly, making red tourism an accessible leisure option. Experiences perceived as cost-effective are often seen as “a good value” and are more likely to leave a lasting impression on tourists (Caber et al., 2020). Huan et al. (2011) suggested that cost-effectiveness is an important aspect of perceived value. This study supports that view from the perspective of red tourism visitors and highlights that cost-effective experiences are another key component of MRTEs. The most significant difference between this category of tourists and the other types of red tourism visitors is that their MRTEs are not strongly associated with red culture, even though they visited the sites due to the high popularity of red tourism. As Participant 28 said:

“I like to travel to red tourist destinations with my family during the holidays because I have been familiar with many red tourist attractions since childhood, such as Yan’an and Jinggang Mountain. At the same time, the red sites are free of admission, and my family can save a lot of money during holidays so that we can spend our money on shopping, dining, and other places. I think going to the red destination is a very cost-effective option.”

Scholars have primarily focused on positive emotions due to the hedonic nature of many tourism activities, while attention to negative emotions only emerges when their impacts are discovered in dark tourism (Nawijn and Biran, 2019). Furthermore, Bi et al. (2020) found that tourists can experience mixed emotions in the context of business tourism. Mixed emotions can enhance the attention tourists pay to scenic areas, deepen their understanding of cultural aspects, and contribute to long-term memory formation (Macleod et al., 2018; Sthapit et al., 2021). Building on this, Hu (2022) confirmed that red tourism generates mixed emotions during on-site experiences. This study expands on previous research by showing that mixed emotions not only occur during the trip, which fulfills the tourists’ basic needs and extends their daily experiences, but they also become a component of MRTEs even after the trip. As participant 22 stated:

“I was really sad when I heard about how the enemy cruelly tortured Sister Jiang (a heroine) in the Refuse Pit. This made me realize that life is too precious and that we should cherish the hard-won life we have now. This gave me a feeling of happiness.”

The knowledge experiences suggest that tourists acquire a lot of knowledge after engaging in red tourism. Most red tourism destinations are established at key historical places such as revolutionary battlefields, significant meeting sites, birthplaces of Communist Party leaders, and tombs of revolutionary heroes. These places are the materialization of different periods of China’s national revolutionary history (Zhou et al., 2022b). All Chinese citizens study this segment of national history during their formal education, including in primary and secondary schools. However, Yan and Hyman (2023) found that Chinese citizens have often pushed back against hard strategies for education about revolutionary history in China, such as formal education. The results of the present study prove that red tourism serves as a more acceptable strategy for governments to establish political legitimacy and red culture through an edutainment approach, making tourists more receptive to embracing red knowledge, and it can leave a lasting memory. Red tourism can create immersive experiences, and when red knowledge is supplemented with engaging stories, tourists are more likely to accept the education on the subject and form strong impressions. As Schank (1999) pointed out, human memory is script-based. Presenting knowledge related to red tourism in the form of stories enhances the memorability of that knowledge.

(1) This study identified four main categories of MRTEs, with identity experience as the most dominant, followed by mixed emotional experience, cost-effective experience, and then knowledge experience.

(2) The findings revealed that mixed emotions play a significant role in MRTEs. These emotions are not limited to the on-site experiences that fulfill the tourists' basic needs and extend their daily experiences. They also remain a key component of MRTEs even after the actual visit.

(3) Red tourism sites typically offer free admission, enabling tourists to allocate their budgets toward other visit- related expenditures and participate in additional activities. This cost-saving approach enhances the overall quality of their experience, highlighting the importance of cost-effective experiences as a key component of MRTEs. The cost-effective experience of red tourism is considered “a good value” and tends to leave a lasting impression.

This study extends the research on MTEs into the realm of red tourism based on the subjective perceptions of tourists. Previous research in this domain has largely focused on either on-site or overall tourist experiences (Zhou et al., 2022a). This study’s outcomes contribute to a deeper understanding of the components of MRTEs. Consequently, the research findings significantly contribute to and enhance the theoretical framework of red tourism experiences.

The findings highlight the unique nature of MRTEs. Identity experience suggests that red tourism functions as an effective tool for achieving political objectives at the individual level. This insight addresses a gap in understanding the political role of red tourism and its impact on memorable experiences. The study also found that affordability (Factor 3) plays a significant role in creating MRTEs, particularly by fostering a sense of value for the money in red tourism destinations. As for mixed emotional and knowledge experiences, these two forms of experiences have been confirmed in previous studies of on-site red tourism experiences (Dai and Ma, 2021; Hu et al., 2022). The results of this study confirm that these two types of experiences are not only components of on-site experiences but also constituents of memorable post-tour red tourism experiences. Follow-up research should continue to delve deeper into the differences between these two types of experiences during the tour and post-tour construction of experiences, and examine their mnemonic biases.

The results of this study can serve as a reference for subsequent research. This study reduced the initially large number of red tourism experience statements (38 statements) to four distinct styles that comprise unique combinations of factors. However, the internal relationships within these four types, and whether these elements influence each other, should all be used as starting points for future research.

The findings of this study can provide a basis for the government to formulate policies on red tourism. According to the three most strongly disagreed statements in identity experiences, tourists consider red tourism to be a unique and serious form of tourism. Therefore, the government should adhere to the principle of non-entertainment development in red tourism. Red tourism should not be aligned with general entertainment tourism products to preserve its uniqueness and authenticity (Wang et al., 2022). For example, red tourism resorts or red tourism comedy shows (Zuo et al., 2017) contradict the serious nature of red tourism and may conflict with the public’s understanding of the industry. An entertainment-driven approach to red tourism not only undermines its ideological and educational value but also fails to meet the tourists’ expectations. When tourists start to doubt red culture, the educational value of red tourism is forfeited.

This study’s findings also provide important practical implications for red tourism suppliers. First, this study identified four types of MRTEs, offering valuable insights for red tourism developers to create more memorable experiences. For example, in terms of emotional experiences, practitioners can evoke mixed emotions (e.g., awe, sadness, pleasure, and worship) in tourists by incorporating performing arts, such as red dance dramas and operas.

The results suggest that visitors to red tourism sites are consumers who are sensitive to pricing. At the time of this study, over 90% of red tourism sites had implemented free admission (Wang et al., 2022). Compared to other types of scenic spots in China, where entrance tickets often cost over 100 yuan, a prominent feature of red tourist attractions is their high recognition and low cost. Therefore, continuing the practice of providing free tickets at red tourist spots is imperative to enhance the tourists’ sense of value (Ritpanitchajchaval et al., 2023).

First, this study did not consider group tours, and their structure could have an impact on the tourist experience. According to previous studies, nearly half of all visitors at red tourism destinations are group tourists (Wang, 2022), and different travel companions may affect MRTEs (Vada et al., 2022). Second, the findings may not apply to a cross-cultural context, because the data were collected from a sample of tourists in China. Previous research suggests that the cultural backgrounds of tourists significantly impact their experiences and perceptions (Zare, 2019). For example, red tourism destinations in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Latin America are less prominent, as communism is just one part of their broader histories. Tourists from those regions often focus on learning from history to avoid repeating past mistakes (Light, 2000a; 2000b). Therefore, future studies should investigate the components of memory tourism related to communism on a global level, and compare these differences across cultures (Calderon-Fajardo, 2023).