Sports tourism is fundamentally rooted in leisure and involves temporarily freeing individuals from their homes and communities to participate in or observe sports events or visit sports attractions (Gibson, 2005). This definition emerged from a longstanding discourse among scholars on how to classify the behavior of sports tourists. While early scholars emphasized active participation by sports tourists (Gibson, 2021), Redmond et al. (1991) first recognized that spectatorship and visitation are also integral to sports tourism. Building upon previous definitions, Gibson (2021) summarized three forms of sports tourism which scholars have widely accepted: active sports tourism, event sports tourism, and nostalgia sports tourism. Subsequently, Deery et al. (2007) emphasized that the key to defining sports tourism lies in understanding the motivations behind participation and explicitly declared that sports tourism refers to sports event tourism.

Sports events are significant attractions in sports tourism that not only constitute the objects of development but also play a pivotal role in tourism marketing (Preuss, 2010). Furthermore, they can minimize environmental impacts, leaving behind tangible legacies (infrastructure, economic development) and intangible legacies (residential pride) (Gibson et al., 2021). This sustainable development model has gained favor among tourism departments worldwide, leading to strong governmental intervention to introduce and organize various sports events. Regarding the classification of sports events within sports tourism, the definition has continuously expanded. Initially, scholars mostly adhered to the typology of Edwards (1973), which stipulated that sports events related to sports tourism must be formal, official sporting activities with a clear historical record and tradition. Hall (1992) proposed that sports events could also be non-competitive and self-organized activities. As the scope gradually widened, some small-scale sports events gradually entered the purview of scholarly research and governmental practice.

From the perspective of the classic study of Hall (1989), major sports events refer to large-scale cultural and sporting events, held periodically or on a one-time basis, that enjoy international recognition. The fundamental distinction from small-scale events lies in their scale, in that iconic major events attract national and international attention and rely on partial or complete governmental funding support. In the context of developing small-scale sports event tourism, this study adopts the definition of Wilson (2006): Small-scale competitive events, where the number of participants may exceed the number of spectators, generating minimal economic activity, without significant media interest, part of the annual cycle of national sporting events (e.g., local and regional sports events in most sports).

Although the traffic, media coverage, prestige, and economic benefits generated by small and medium-sized sports events may pale in comparison to large events, many scholars argue that small-scale and recurring sports events are more likely to achieve sustainable development for the host communities and residents (Gibson et al., 2021). Agha and Taks (2015) suggest that organizing several small and medium-sized sports events will yield more benefits than a single large-scale event. Existing research suggests that small and medium-sized events have less pronounced environmental impacts. For instance, a study by Malchrowicz- Mośko and Poczta (2018) confirmed that they generate less waste, noise, and pollution than large-scale sports events. Moreover, they require less initial capital, are more manageable, and allow for better crowd control. Most importantly, they attain higher levels of satisfaction and cooperation from local residents (Agha and Taks, 2015). Consequently, since the end of the previous century, scholars have recommended that communities aspiring to develop sports tourism should consider focusing on small-scale sports events (Higham, 1999).

The portfolio of small-scale events as a tool for sports tourism development has garnered attention globally. In the United States, sports commissions have established small- scale sports tourism as a viable sector within the existing tourism industry (Gibson et al., 2003). Numerous communities have embarked on such initiatives, with university sports events in countries like the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan generating significant benefits for the local communities (Gibson et al., 2003). Beyond urban areas, Ziakas and Boukas (2016) examined the sports tourism development model of the European island nation of Cyprus, and confirmed that a combination of small-scale events synergistically amplifies their value and leads to a series of sustainable activities in subsequent stages. In rural areas, the study of Bertella (2014) in rural Italy highlighted the special value of developing small-scale sports events for athletes and local residents, suggested significant potential for such activities in rural areas and designed a feasible model for rural sports tourism development and management. While research focusing on small-scale sports events as the core of sports tourism has received widespread attention in both practical and theoretical contexts, an examination of the impacts arising from real-world case practices, particularly the social impacts, is still lacking.

The ultimate goal of rural revitalization, including rural tourism development, is to enhance the quality of life and well-being of the local people (Su et al., 2019). Studies on sports events predominantly focus on local economic development and residential support, with limited attention to their social implications.

From a psychological perspective, happiness can be divided into two distinct categories: subjective well-being and objective well-being (Ryff and Keyes, 1995). Objective well- being relies on more objective indicators of happiness or success to define the level of well-being, including factors such as career success, physical appearance, education level, family relationships, and others (Schueller and Seligman, 2010). In contrast, within the concept of subjective well- being, Emmons and Diener (2016) suggested that subjective well-being refers to individuals using their own subjective standards to define their satisfaction in various domains of life. It evaluates how events affect the degree of satisfaction with life quality and emotional experiences, and it is driven by complex psychological states that are influenced by internal psychological motivations and external inducements. As a result, in the field of tourism, particularly in studies on the impact of tourism development on well-being, subjective well-being is considered more suitable than objective well-being as a measurement criterion and it is more widely used (Uysal et al., 2016).

Subjective well-being encompasses two dimensions: cognitive assessment and emotional assessment. The former involves an individual’s cognitive judgment of their current life conditions under the influence of events, often generalized as life satisfaction. It involves the process of individuals recognizing, weighing, and evaluating the significance of their life circumstances. The latter dimension pertains to an individual’s sustained emotional responses following experiences, encompassing both positive and negative emotions (Uysal et al., 2016). In the context of tourism studies, researchers often adopt a specific occasion perspective, focusing on the impacts of events such as sports events and festive activities on individual well-being (Kaplanidou et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2020; Sato et al., 2022). Among these factors, income and living environment play a robust role in shaping the subjective well-being of residents. The impact of greater income from the tourism industry has been shown to significantly influence cognitive well-being, while its effect on emotional well-being is comparatively weaker. Perceived tourism impacts are related to the cognitive component of subjective well-being, but not to the emotional component (Nawijn and Mitas, 2011).

The subjective well-being, quality of life, and life satisfaction of residents are often used interchangeably in the literature. Previous studies have explored the mechanisms behind the subjective well-being of residents from multiple perspectives. Broadly speaking, theories related to happiness can be categorized into top-down and bottom-up perspectives (Diener, 1984). The former viewpoint suggests that an individual’s sense of well-being is relatively stable and largely determined by their temperament and personality traits (Diener and Ryan, 2009), with events in life having a minor impact on well-being. The latter viewpoint asserts that an individual’s well-being is a result of experiencing many moments of happiness (Chen and Yoon, 2018). According to the overflow theory, life satisfaction can be divided from bottom to top into life concern satisfaction, life dimension satisfaction, and overall life satisfaction (Kim et al., 2013). From a top-down perspective, overall life satisfaction is considered a dependent variable of life concern satisfaction and life dimension satisfaction. In contrast, the bottom-up perspective posits that well-being is shaped by satisfaction in various domains of life (e.g., satisfaction with community, family, work, social life, and health), with the level of satisfaction in specific life domains (e.g., social life) influenced by lower-level life concerns (e.g., the perception of tourism impacts on community activities). Therefore, the impact of tourism on the well-being of residents mainly occurs through the evaluation of specific domains of life, including material living, socio-cultural factors, and ecological health, so it can generate direct or indirect effects.

This study investigates the impact of sports tourism on the well-being of residents from a bottom-up perspective, in which the perceived sports tourism impacts are the residents’ perceptions of various changes in their local area due to sports tourism development. This perspective is grounded in the fundamental aspects of daily life. The commonly used “triple bottom line” method, which integrates economic, socio-cultural, and environmental factors, is commonly employed to explore the impacts of events. A substantial body of research has confirmed the existence of a relationship between tourism impacts and the well-being of residents (Kaplanidou et al., 2013; Morgan et al., 2015).

Regarding perceived positive impacts, the strongest experiences of residents are often related to economic benefits, which researchers have particularly emphasized. Hosting sports events can increase household income, offer commercial or job opportunities, and mitigate inflation (Homafar et al., 2011), with individual economic gains being a key factor influencing the well-being of residents. Numerous studies have provided empirical evidence supporting the positive correlation between income and happiness (Uysal et al., 2016). In addition, the introduction of sports events can facilitate improvements in infrastructure, such as transportation, and the construction of sports facilities that provide local residents with more recreational opportunities (Prayag et al., 2013). This improvement in the quality of life leads to an enhanced cognitive well-being (Chi et al., 2017). However, potential negative impacts such as rising prices (Andereck et al., 2005) and land values (Látková and Vogt, 2011) should not be overlooked. Within rural communities, the unequal distribution of wealth generated by tourism can lead to tensions among residents (Mansfield and Jonas, 2006), causing concerns about their own living conditions and current circumstances.

In addition, the social and cultural consequences brought about by the development of sports tourism far exceed the scope of the events themselves. Sports tourism development provides local residents with new opportunities for leisure, entertainment, and experiences, fostering a sense of community consciousness and excitement by uniting community members. This engenders pride and cohesion among local residents and establishes a sense of community identity (Kim and Petrick, 2005). Moreover, the arrival of athletes and visitors from various regions can facilitate cultural exchange, allowing residents to gain insights into other cultures and enhancing their awareness for preserving traditional heritage. Social interactions and improved interpersonal relationships have also been confirmed as crucial factors contributing to happiness (Chang et al., 2014). Conversely, negative societal impacts, such as concerns about public safety and crime (Deery et al., 2012), traffic congestion (Hamilton and Alexander, 2013), overcrowding, and host-guest conflicts (Kim et al., 2015), must not be overlooked during the tourism development process. These factors can lower the life satisfaction of residents and frequently result in negative emotions.

Lastly, regarding the environmental implications of sports tourism, Prayag et al. (2013) suggested that sports events act as catalysts for environmental restoration and landscape revitalization in the host and surrounding areas. They can stimulate governments and local residents to raise awareness and engage in environmental conservation efforts (Kim et al., 2006). Scholars have also reported potential environmental influences on the well-being of residents. For instance, Jeon et al. (2014) demonstrated a positive relationship between the residents’ perceived environmental impacts and happiness in Massachusetts, USA. Sato et al. (2022) similarly verified the positive impact of residents’ environmental perceptions of major sports events on psychological well-being. However, it is notable that, overall, there is a greater emphasis on exploring negative environmental perceptions among residents than positive perceptions. For example, influxes of tourists may lead to environmental pollution, increased waste, noise disturbances, degradation of the natural and physical environments, and even alterations in land use patterns (Kim et al., 2006; Ritchie et al., 2010; Lorde et al., 2011).

This study amalgamates the economic, social, and environmental influences to gain a better understanding of the residents’ perceived impacts of sports tourism development. While empirical research by Pfitzner and Koenigstorfer (2016) suggested that major sports events do not substantially alter various aspects of the quality of life of residents, including the physical, social, psychological, and environmental dimensions, whether this finding is applicable to small-scale sports events in rural communities remains uncertain. In summary, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: The residents’ perception of sports tourism impacts has a significant positive influence on their subjective well-being.

Scholars have noted a shift from tourists to residents in the focus of tourism policies in many countries (Moon et al., 2018). For sustainable rural revitalization, addressing diverse needs and emphasizing the residents’ genuine interests requires effective methods such as community participation or community-based actions (Hwang et al., 2011). As a result, the concept of community participation has been introduced into the field of tourism development as a method and means to address the negative impacts of tourism, and it is regarded as a measure of developmental sustainability (Murphy, 1985). Some scholars view and define community participation from a bottom-up individual perspective. For instance, Lee (2013) defined it as the extent to which community members participate in the daily affairs of their community. At that level, the process of community participation is interpreted as a voluntary behavior involving self-management, decision responsiveness, and cooperation with others (Til, 1984). Other scholars view the whole community from a top-down perspective of community and broader societal relationships. They consider the process of community participation as a process of empowerment and education (Tosun, 2000), and as a tool used for transferring power to readjust the power balances (Willis, 1995). Community participation encourages stakeholders to shift control from the decision-makers to themselves, mobilizing their resources to participate in their own development and make decisions that satisfy their needs (Stone, 1989). Based on the degree of this power transfer, Arnstein (1969) introduced the “ladder of citizen participation”. Building on this concept, Tosun (2000) categorized four levels of proactive engagement by residents in the tourism context, i.e. non-participation, obligatory participation, induced participation, and spontaneous participation, and pointed out that community participation must be examined from at least two aspects: the decision-making process and benefit-sharing. However, it is undeniable that at the local level, especially in developing countries or regions, the primary driver of resident community participation is often economic factors rather than political rights (Rasoolimanesh and Mastura, 2016).

Considering practical experience and social context, models of tourism development in developing countries often lean towards a top-down “government-led” approach. This approach makes it challenging for tourism development to achieve higher levels of proactive engagement among residents, particularly at the spontaneous participation stage (Towner, 2016). For instance, in the case of tourism development in ethnic minority villages in Xinjiang, China, despite generating substantial income from tourism and a 75% satisfaction rate among residents, the communities remain in a state of passive participation (Gao and Wu, 2017). Research on surfing tourism development in the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia also revealed passive participation traits due to the lack of knowledge, experience, and organizational skills within local communities in developing areas (Wang and Wall, 2007). Given the current situation in China, sustainability may primarily imply stakeholder involvement in benefit-sharing, rather than participation in decision-making during the current stage of society (Wang et al., 2010).

To account for the genuine interests of residents and the social background of the study area, this study predominantly adopted the first perspective for investigating community participation. The scope of examination extended beyond the benefit-sharing and decision-making angles to explore the voluntary behaviors of residents in actively integrating into the community. Traditional forms of engagement include participation in decision-making, management, community activities, and marketing or employment (Goodwin, 2002). Employment in rural communities is often characterized by self-employment, including various tourism-related services such as agritourism and homestays. Residents also enhance their income through the sale of local agricultural and sideline products. Different forms of community participation may exhibit distinct characteristics and focus across various types of tourism. In community-based tourism, Alonso and Liu (2013) discovered that residents offer voluntary assistance to the community, such as in organizing or hosting events. In sports tourism, accessibility to recreational facilities can promote the engagement of local residents in sports activities, especially in recurring sports events where residents frequently participate as active competitors (Alonso and Liu, 2013). Scholars are increasingly focusing on community participation through the roles of residents as participants, spectators, and volunteers in collective activities related to sports events (Shipway et al., 2019). Furthermore, the impacts of sports extend beyond participation, as many studies emphasize its role in fostering trust, communication, and reciprocity within communities (Perks, 2007). Results from the longitudinal study of Perks (2007) indicated that the relationships and trust developed through sports participation can lead residents to engage in community activities beyond just the sports.

In recent years, scholars have extensively explored the antecedents of residents’ willingness to engage in tourism. The Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability (MOA) model, along with Social Exchange Theory, can effectively explain the impact of tourism development on community participation by residents (Hung et al., 2010). Motivation involves their perceptions of the impacts of tourism development, whether positive or negative. Perceived positive impacts may encourage active and voluntary engagement, while perceived negative impacts might reduce their willingness to support tourism development (Gursoy et al., 2002). Opportunity refers to the existence of appropriate channels that can facilitate community participation in tourism, while ability refers to enabling factors for engagement, including the necessary knowledge, skills, and financial resources (Hung et al., 2010). The relationship between motivation and community participation has been studied extensively. Sirivongs and Tsuchiya (2012) discovered that the perception of positive tourism development effects can significantly affect the attitudes and willingness of residents to participate in tourism. According to Social Exchange Theory, if individuals perceive benefits without incurring unacceptable costs, they are more likely to engage in exchange relationships (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2016). Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: The perception of sports tourism impacts by residents has a significant positive influence on their participation in sports tourism.

Furthermore, prior research has indicated that engagement in relationship-building and social interaction activities enhances subjective well-being. Tourism activities have been studied extensively as an effective platform for promoting relationship enhancement and social participation, which may impact the subjective well-being of residents (Morgan et al., 2015). However, research by Okulicz- Kozaryn and Strzelecka (2016) suggests that the emotional impact of participation may result in minimal or even negative effects of tourism development on the well-being of residents in popular destinations. Despite disagreements in previous research in this field, this study still asserts a positive impact of community participation on the well-being of residents. From an economic participation perspective, residents profit from engagement in tourism-related businesses, and income is an effective explanatory variable for well- being. From a social and decision-making participation perspective, the perceived impacts of tourism on well-being involve processes of information acquisition and deep experience. Residents need to assess their own well-being based on the external changes brought about by tourism development in their hometown. This assessment is inevitably influenced by varying levels of information acquisition and experience. As a key variable for actively integrating residents into community activities, community participation leads to a deeper understanding of various aspects of community tourism development and provides a more profound experience. Based on these issues, we infer two more hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3: The participation of residents in sports tourism has a significant positive influence on their subjective well-being.

Hypothesis 4: The participation of residents in sports tourism is a mediating variable between their perceived sports tourism impacts and subjective well-being.

Huangsha Village is located in Zhenzhu Township, Wuyuan County, Jiangxi Province. With a total population of 3138 people, it consists of over 1400 households distributed among 12 village groups and nine natural villages (communities). The village boasts abundant natural resources, including 1722 ha of forestland with a forest coverage rate of 85.7%, encompassing broadleaf forests, bamboo, and tea plantations. While maintaining a pristine ecological environment, the village has faced economic challenges due to the gradual decline of its predominantly agricultural industry and significant labor outmigration. In response, the Wuyuan County government embraced the call for sports tourism development to alleviate local poverty.

Huangsha Village was included in the first batch of national sports and leisure characteristic towns to be piloted. Unlike popular events such as village super events, most sports events there have been actively introduced or organized by local governments. Subsequently, local residents took the initiative to use the available sports facilities to spontaneously organize related sports activities, carry out tourism operations, and provide volunteer services. A turning point emerged in 2017, when the government invested in constructing the province’s first village-level sports facility capable of accommodating volleyball, badminton, and table tennis events for over 500 athletes. Subsequently, they sponsored the construction of the Zhenshu Mountain Sports and Cultural Exhibition Center and a large sports arena.

From 2017 to the present, the village has hosted or organized 42 events, including 10 national-level, 10 provincial-level, eight city-level, 12 county-level, and two township-level events. Notably, the China Wuyuan Huanxiu Lake International Cross-Country Race has become a renowned branded event. These diverse events span over 30 different types, including various sports, chess, music festivals, and culinary events, and position the village as a typical example of developing sports tourism through small-scale recurring events in a rural community, not only in China but also worldwide.

Another significant reason for selecting Huangsha Village as the case study is the proactive and positive community participation by local residents. Leveraging sports events for related tourism activities, the village has embraced its tourism-based businesses. Currently, 33 households offer over 272 bed spaces for homestay services, generating an annual income growth of approximately 20000 yuan for each host. Residents sell local specialty agricultural products such as honey, camellia oil, fermented fish, dried fish, and chrysanthemum tea, while the village’s unique cuisine is also in great demand.

Many residents have returned to the village for employment. Moreover, villagers actively attend and watch sports events, using the sports facilities to promote a trend of overall fitness, thereby transforming unhealthy habits like drinking and playing cards into active lifestyles on the sports field. This movement has even led to a local slogan: Healthier Bodies, Harmonious Families, Cultured Villages, Stable Society. Huangsha Village’s substantial economic benefits, ecological preservation, and improved quality of life make it a success story well worth exploring.

This study employed a structured survey questionnaire for data collection, consisting of four parts. The first part pertained to demographic characteristics of the rural residents. The second part involved the perceived sports tourism impacts among residents, considering aspects across the economic, social, and environmental dimensions. The third part measured community participation, which served as a mediating variable. The fourth part comprised items measuring the subjective well-being of residents. Except for the first part, Likert five-point scales were used for measurement across all other sections.

For perceived sports tourism impacts, respondents rated their agreement level for nine items (1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = general; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree). Perceived economic impacts were assessed with three items adapted from previous studies (Kim et al., 2006; Prayag et al., 2013). Perceived social and cultural impacts were measured with three items derived from studies by Prayag et al. (2013) and Kim et al. (2015). Three items employed to gauge the perceived environmental impacts of sports tourism development were adapted from previous studies (Ritchie et al., 2010; Lorde et al., 2011).

In contrast to the Western approach to measuring community participation, which mainly encompasses participation in daily affairs, management, decision-making, planning, and benefit sharing, the Chinese context and previous research by Wang and Hao (2008) suggest that community participation includes cultural, social, decision-making, and economic dimensions. Adapted from the scale of Wang and Hao (2008) and tailored to the specific context of Huangsha Village, this study examined community participation from three dimensions: social participation, economic participation, and decision-making participation, using a total of ten items.

The subjective well-being of residents was assessed with three items which were inspired by the well-being measurement scales of Kaplanidou et al. (2013) and Chen et al. (2020).

The measurement items for each scale can be found in Table 1.

Data collection took place prior to November 2, 2022, during a field visit to Huangsha Village, where a total of 426 valid questionnaires were collected for data analysis. The respondents were informed about the research purpose, and all questionnaires were completed on-site through face-to- face interviews. The questionnaires were administered door- to-door, to ensure comprehensive understanding and authentic responses. A convenient sampling method was used to select participants to reduce selection bias.

The respondents had diverse socio-demographic characteristics. Among them, 55.16% were female. The respondents’ ages were distributed as follows: below 18 years (10.1%), 18-25 years (2.35%), 26-35 years (3.52%), 36-45 years (8.92%), 46-55 years (22.54%), 56-65 years (20.66%), and 66 years and above (31.91%). Due to significant labor migration among the working-age population, the current village population mainly consists of the elderly and children. The respondents’ educational levels were generally low, with the majority having completed only primary school (42.02%) or being illiterate (29.10%). Only 7.28% of the respondents had attained a high school diploma or above. In terms of occupation, a significant portion of the respondents were farmers (44.6%) or laborers (16.19%), indicating that the village represents a typical rural setting heavily reliant on traditional agriculture and handicrafts. The majority (85.44%) had a monthly income below 3000 yuan. The proportion of current tourism-related employees was not very high (8.21%).

Relevant items were included in the survey to consider other important factors influencing well-being, such as marital status and residential location. Notably, previous research has indicated that the perceptions of residents may differ based on their proximity to the event, with non-host residents showing greater positive perceptions of sports tourism. In this study, 83.33% of respondents had long-term residency in Huangsha Village.

In summary, while convenient sampling may not fully represent the broader population, the sample aimed to capture various types of residents settling in Huangsha Village.

Using principal component analysis and the maximum variation method of the vertical axis, SPSS 22.0 was used to conduct an exploratory factor analysis of the perceived sports tourism impact scale, community participation scale, and subjective well-being scale. Three factors were extracted from the perceived sports tourism impact scale, and the cumulative variance contribution rate was 82.996% (Table 1). Three factors were extracted from the community participation scale, and the cumulative variance contribution rate was 88.680%. One factor was extracted from subjective well-being scale, and the cumulative variance contribution rate was 86.979%. These three scale dimensions were consistent with the assumptions, and the factor loading of all scale items is greater than 0.60, indicating good factor construction validity. The Cronbach’s alpha values of the scales are greater than 0.86, indicating good reliability.

SPSS Amos 23.0 was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis of the perceived sports tourism impacts scale, community participation scale, and subjective well-being scale. The results of the first-order confirmatory factor analysis (Table 2) show that the standardized factor loadings of all factors are greater than 0.75, the squares of multivariate correlation coefficients (R²) are greater than 0.63, the average variance extraction (AVE) values are greater than 0.63, and the combined reliability (CR) values are greater than 0.83, all meeting the recommended standards of standardized factor loading≥0.71, R²≥0.50, AVE≥0.50, and CR≥0.70. The results of the differential validity test (Table 3) show that the AVE square root values of the factors are greater than the correlation coefficients between the factors, so the differential validity is high.

Based on the first-order confirmatory factor analysis, the second-order confirmatory factor analyses of the perceived sports tourism impacts scale and community participation scale were carried out. The perceived sports tourism impacts model and community participation model were both well fitted with parameters of χ² = 54.880, df = 24, χ²/df = 2.287, NFI = 0.969, TLI = 0.973, CFI = 0.982, RMSEA = 0.064 and χ² = 133.129, df = 32, χ²/df = 4.160, NFI = 0.962, TLI = 0.959, CFI = 0.971, RMSEA = 0.100, respectively. Table 2 shows that the factor loading, R², AVE and CR of the second-order construct on the first-order constructs are also up to the standards, so the model has good convergence validity.

The dimensional mean values were calculated for the perceived sports tourism impacts, community participation, and subjective well-being. Stata 12.0 was used to perform multiple regression analysis using the ordinary least squares estimation (OLS) method, and hypotheses 1 to 4 were tested.

The data in Table 4 show that after controlling for the demographic characteristics of the respondents, i.e. gender, age, education level, occupation, monthly disposable income, local village residence, and marital status, equation (1) shows that perceived sports tourism impacts has a significant positive effect on the subjective well-being of residents (β = 0.544, P<0.01). Thus, hypothesis 1 is validated. Equation (2) shows that perceived sports tourism impacts has a significant positive effect on community participation (β = 0.773, P<0.01), so hypothesis 2 is confirmed. Equation (3) shows that community participation has a significant positive effect on the subjective well-being of residents (β = 0.327, P<0.01), so hypothesis 3 is verified.

At the same time, after adding the community participation variable, the coefficient of perceived sports tourism impacts in equation (3) is smaller than that in equation (1) while the statistical significance remains unchanged. Combined with the stepwise method of the mediating effect test, the data show that community participation plays an incomplete mediating role between the perceived sports tourism impacts and the subjective well-being of residents. Thus, hypothesis 4 is confirmed.

In addition, the regression results based on the three dimensions of community participation (i.e., social participation, decision-making participation, and economic participation) also passed the test, so it also plays a role in robustness testing to a certain extent.

To our knowledge, this study may be the first empirical investigation into how the development of sports tourism in rural areas affects the subjective well-being of residents. Specifically, by integrating the residents’ perceptions of tourism impacts and subjective well-being from the previous literature in a typical rural sports tourism destination in China, our model suggests that the subjective well-being of residents is a result of the combined effects of perceived sports tourism impacts and community participation. The main conclusions are twofold.

First, the perceived impact of sports tourism is an important antecedent of the subjective well-being of residents in rural areas. In other words, the more positive the perception of sports tourism impacts among rural residents, the higher their subjective well-being. Despite the context of conducting small-scale and recurring sports events in rural areas, our findings align with prior research conducted in urban areas hosting large-scale sports events (Prayag et al., 2013; Sato et al., 2022).

Second, community participation is a channel through which the perceived impacts of sports tourism bear on the subjective well-being of rural residents. Specifically, the perceived impacts of sports tourism will improve their subjective well-being by increasing community participation. To put it simply, the more positive the perception of sports tourism impacts, the higher the level of participation in sports tourism; and the higher the level of participation in sports tourism, the stronger the subjective well-being of residents.

This finding shares some similarity with research emphasizing the positive influence of sports activities on the well-being of individuals (Sato et al., 2022). At the psychological level, organizing, participating in, or observing various sports events and festive celebrations contributes to psychological capital (Sato et al., 2022) and social capital. This includes stress relief, social interaction, and the realization of individual value, all of which enhance an individual’s life satisfaction. From a physical standpoint, appropriate physical exercise and community activities can lead to heightened perceived health, a crucial factor in subjective well-being. This aligns with earlier research emphasizing the positive value of empowered community participation (Arnstein, 1969). The heightened levels of positive perception and community participation have confirmed the feasibility and rationality of using rural sports tourism to achieve sustainable development.

This study contributes to theory in three aspects.

In terms of research perspectives, from examining the influence of sports tourism impact perception on the subjective well-being of rural residents to exploring the meditating role of community participation, this study adopted an individual-centric and bottom-up perspective rather than a macroscopic view. It captured the actual experiences of residents, enriching the study of their subjective well-being.

In terms of research scenarios, by focusing on rural communities hosting small-scale and recurring sports events, this study highlights the critical role of community participation in this unique research context. It provides valuable insights for promoting theoretical research and practical development in this field.

In terms of research contents, by integrating community participation into the causal relationship between perceived sports tourism impacts and subjective well-being for the first time, this study verified the logical correlation among these three variables. We hope that this research will offer direction and guidance for future studies.

The survey results provide valuable practical insights for various stakeholders, such as sports events organizers involved in sports tourism destination management.

On the one hand, improving the positive impacts of sports tourism development in rural areas should receive more attention, especially in the socio-cultural and environmental aspects, in order to enhance the subjective well-being of residents. While most event organizers prioritize economic benefits when hosting sports events, they often neglect social and cultural influences, but our research demonstrates that the social benefits of developing small-scale, recurring sports events may far outweigh the economic gains in rural areas. These events can transform the lives of local residents and enhance their happiness. Notably, sports tourism may not be suitable as a standalone pillar industry in rural areas. Instead, it should be integrated with other sectors such as traditional agriculture and handicrafts, as well as other forms of tourism like ecotourism and rural tourism. The emphasis should shift towards policies that prioritize the well-being of residents over economic growth.

On the other hand, community participation emerges as a critical factor for the development of sports tourism in rural areas. To encourage the participation of residents, strategies such as recruiting volunteers and encouraging local attendance or participation should be implemented. Holding regular meetings to discuss tourism development plans and involving residents in decision-making processes, especially those with initially negative perceptions, can help to change their attitudes and perspectives. Moreover, training for residents engaged in tourism reception services should be provided to enhance their livelihood skills while unconsciously conveying pathways and information for benefit-sharing in tourism development, thereby encouraging the residents to diversify their income sources. Finally, updates on development plans should be provided to residents in a timely manner. They should also be informed about potential long-term benefits, such as new infrastructure projects, job opportunities, the purchase of agricultural products, or handicrafts as event prizes. This approach can boost the confidence of residents and foster a positive attitude toward local economic development.

For various reasons, the conclusions of this study should be approached with caution due to some limitations.

First, the proposed model does not encompass some factors that could potentially impact the well-being of residents. Previous research has indicated that factors like political trust (Liu et al., 2020), perceived fairness, psychological capital (Sato et al., 2022), and community attachment (Chi et al., 2017) can also offer explanatory power regarding the well-being of residents in tourism development. Besides macro-level factors, micro-level psychological elements such as personal moral qualities, conformity, and altruism (Ryff and Keyes, 1995) might also require some consideration. Incorporating more diverse factors could enhance the model’s predictive capacity.

Second, the selection of the case study sites in this study may have been influenced by historical, geographical, and cultural constraints. Moreover, this village is still in the early phase of tourism development, with most community participation being passive. Future studies might consider examining rural areas in various stages of development, focusing on locations with higher levels of proactive community participation. This approach would yield more comprehensive and generalizable results.

Third, we encourage other researchers to use this study as a starting point for longitudinal research. Over time, the attitudes of residents may change, and longitudinal studies focusing on temporal changes in the attitudes of both host and non-host residents toward the impacts of sports events have already been conducted (Kim et al., 2006). However, these studies mainly concentrated on large-scale events and lack the context of this study, i.e., small-scale, recurring events in rural communities. Further longitudinal research in this field is warranted and should be explored.