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Journal of Resources and Ecology >

2025 , Vol. 16 >Issue 3: 715 - 729

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.009

Human Activities and Sustainable Development

Community Participation, Technical Solutions, and Adaptive Management: Keys to Successful Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Plantation Initiatives in Maharashtra

  • WADGHANE Rahul , 1, * ,
  • GHANGALE Seema 1 ,
  • KALA Chandra Prakash 2 ,
  • SONWANEY Vandana 1
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  • 1. Symbiosis Institute of Operations Management, Nashik Campus, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, Maharashtra 422008, India
  • 2. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal 462003, India
* WADGHANE Rahul, E-mail: ;

Received date: 2024-09-05

  Accepted date: 2024-12-20

  Online published: 2025-05-28

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Abstract

The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) initiative in Maharashtra addresses the critical need to balance development with environmental conservation by ensuring compensatory afforestation for diverted forest lands. It manages funds collected from agencies using forest areas for non-forest purposes, ensuring their proper utilization for reforestation, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem restoration. This initiative is crucial for maintaining ecological balance, mitigating climate change impacts, and promoting sustainable development in the state, while also providing transparency in the management of environmental compensation funds. This research examines the factors influencing the success of CAMPA plantations in western and central Maharashtra, India. We employed field surveys, SWOT analysis, and stakeholder interviews to assess plantation outcomes and challenges. Our analysis revealed strengths like natural forests, good rainfall, and suitable soil, alongside weaknesses such as challenging terrain, water scarcity, and wildlife interference. Opportunities for improvement include promoting natural regeneration, implementing water and soil conservation practices, and fostering local community involvement. Threats to success come from monsoon inaccessibility, inappropriate species selection, and wildlife disturbance. The study emphasizes a two-pronged approach for successful CAMPA initiatives. First, technical considerations like irrigation during initial years, planting mature saplings, and constructing large cattle-proof trenches are crucial for sapling survival, water conservation, and soil protection. Second, effective management practices are equally important. Timely access to funding ensures proper implementation, while engaging local communities through Gram Sabha (village assembly) fosters a sense of ownership and promotes plantation protection. Flexibility in planning allows for adaptation to diverse site conditions. Therefore, site observations, consultations with forest officials and key informants (to rank the crucial success factors) enabled this study to fetch dynamic results. In a nutshell, this research highlights the importance of combining scientific knowledge with community participation for building resilient and sustainable CAMPA initiatives. Stakeholders, despite minor variations in emphasis, agree on core success factors: community involvement, animal protection through large trenches, and securing funding.

Key words： natural resource management; soil and water conservation; sustainable forest management; biodiversity conservation; successful forest plantations; climate change mitigation and adaptation

Cite this article

WADGHANE Rahul , GHANGALE Seema , KALA Chandra Prakash , SONWANEY Vandana . Community Participation, Technical Solutions, and Adaptive Management: Keys to Successful Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) Plantation Initiatives in Maharashtra[J]. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 2025 , 16(3) : 715 -729 . DOI: 10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.009

1 Introduction

Forests are essential for preserving ecological balance, biodiversity, and climate change mitigation. About 31% of the earth's land area is covered by forests, which support millions of people’s livelihoods, act as carbon sinks, and provide vital ecological services (Raj et al., 2021). Countries all across the world have started large-scale afforestation and reforestation initiatives in recognition of their significance. For example, the EU’s Green Deal incorporates afforestation into sustainable development goals, South Korea's restoration efforts have regenerated desolate areas, and China's ‘Green Great Wall’ fights desertification. These programs highlight the vital role that sustainable forestry plays in tackling global issues like climate change by promoting economic growth and job creation in addition to improving environmental resilience. Global issues like climate change are making forestry and green growth efforts more important, underscoring the need for consistent investment and cross-border cooperation in this vital area.
In India, forests are essential for maintaining livelihoods and practicing environmental stewardship. These forests, which make up about 21.67% of the nation’s land area (Sahana et al., 2022) are home to a wide variety of flora and animals as well as vital ecosystem services. They are essential for regulating climate, protecting soil, and ensuring water security (Pandey et al., 2021). In addition, more than 300 million people in India rely on forests for their food, fuel, fodder, and income, especially those living in rural and tribal territories (Samal and Dash, 2023). The Indian government has recognized this dual importance through initiatives like Joint Forest Management and the Forest Rights Act, which aim to balance conservation with community needs (Bhattacharya et al., 2010).
By absorbing around 7% of India’s total greenhouse gas emissions, these forests also play a major role in the country's attempts to mitigate climate change (MoEFCC, 2021). But issues like deterioration, deforestation, and conflicting land-use demands still pose a threat to these essential resources, calling for constant conservation efforts and sustainable management techniques (Sudhakar et al., 2016). India passed the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act (CAF Act) in 2016 (Narain and Maron, 2018) in order to address these issues. The Act, which places a strong emphasis on ecosystem restoration and sustainable forest management, requires compensatory afforestation to make up for the forest loss brought on by development projects. The money gathered from developers for this purpose is managed by the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA). In contrast to reforestation, which recovers degraded forest lands, CAMPA’s programs concentrate on afforestation or the establishment of new forests on non-forest lands. However, attaining these goals is severely hampered by India’s scarcity of appropriate land for afforestation.
Despite these initiatives, little research has been done to assess the effectiveness and results of afforestation programs financed by CAMPA. By investigating the ecological, social, and economic effects of afforestation projects in Maharashtra, this study fills this knowledge vacuum. The study intends to offer practical suggestions for improving the efficacy of compensatory afforestation initiatives in India by identifying obstacles and lessons discovered. In order to determine critical success criteria, the current study uses empirical data to assess the state of CAMPA plantations in Maharashtra’s central and western areas. Stakeholder interviews, SWOT analysis, and field surveys were used to evaluate the difficulties and useful results.

1.1 CAF Act and CAMPA in Maharashtra

One important section of Indian legislation that supports afforestation, sustainable forest management, and ecosystem restoration is the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, which was passed in 2016. By compelling project developers to provide money and land for afforestation projects, it institutionalizes the process of compensatory afforestation and makes up for forest area that has been diverted for non-forest uses, such industrial or infrastructure development. The CAF Act’s goals are to create new forests to make up for the forest area that has been lost to non-forest purposes, in ecosystem restoration to increase biodiversity and forest cover to preserve and restore the ecological balance, in climate change mitigation to increase afforestation’s capacity to sequester carbon and to support for livelihoods of local communities depending on forests. The CAF Act mainly focuses not only on compensatory plantations but also overall ecosystem balance of compensated plantations. India’s dedication to environmental preservation while dealing with developmental demands is seen in the CAF Act. Its success, however, hinges on resolving implementation issues and guaranteeing the ecological and social sustainability of afforestation projects.
The CAMPA in Maharashtra is essential to reducing the negative environmental effects of diverting forest land for uses other than forests. Through the efficient use of money obtained under the CAF Act, the state’s CAMPA effort prioritizes afforestation, ecological restoration, and biodiversity conservation.
With key objectives like afforestation efforts, forest and wildlife conservation and community engagement; the state could achieve certain bench marks like restoring damaged ecosystems and increasing the state’s green space and enhanced efforts to conserve biodiversity and wildlife corridors in vital regions such as the western ghats. Maharashtra’s CAMPA effort is essential for striking a balance between the state’s development ambitions and ecological sustainability, and it makes a substantial contribution to India’s larger afforestation and climate mitigation objectives.

1.2 Similar studies focusing on integrated approach in plantation success

Involvement of local community, integrated approach considering overall ecosystem and involving all stakeholders at multiple stages are important guidelines suggested by Brancalion and Karen for successful tree plantation initiatives (Brancalion and Karen, 2020). Further, study also highlight biophysical and socio-logical goals of any plantation initiatives.
Ecological restoration is the key to success to meet international commitments of forest landscape restoration, biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration as per review conducted by Tambe and others (Tambe et al., 2022). Further, the importance of overall ecosystem development is also highlighted here by incorporating provisions for site-specific, tailored species selection and reasons for degradation, which in turn are very site-specific, without ensuring uniform country-wide implementations, particularly for compensatory afforestation programs in India.
The success of CAMPA plantations were of very different scale at different locations as per study conducted by (Bhatnagar, 2004). Further, mitigating the deforestation for the Sardar Sarovar Dam, India may need customized implementation strategies by considering technical aspects like specie composition and soil quality (Bhatnagar, 2004).
A study conducted by Asher and others on compensatory afforestation in the Himalayas of India concludes that success requires an independent, holistic and multidisciplinary study of the impacts of these interventions and highlights the need to address with ‘mitigation’ (Asher and Bhandari, 2021).

2 Review of existing literature

In the line of various efforts, the phrase ‘compensatory afforestation’ has become more frequently used in official Indian environmental literature in recent years (Tambe et al., 2022). Large-scale initiatives have been launched under this program to expedite the preservation of natural forests, wildlife management, infrastructure development in the industry, and other related projects. It is necessary to conduct a technical evaluation (Bansal et al., 2012) of these current activities, projects, and the efforts put into developing a plan for the future based on the lessons learned. These plantation projects are subject to several risks, such as persistent droughts, ground fires, cattle grazing, wildlife damage, competition with aggressive weeds, poor soil quality, patchy implementation effort, etc. (Khan, 2013; Steiner et al., 2015). Further, knowledge of the relationships between humans and nature in complex social-ecological systems is critical to designing strategies to halt or reverse declining trends in ecosystem services provision.
Implementing afforestation initiatives under the CAMPA is a critical response to the nation’s environmental challenges (Tambe et al., 2022). Amidst growing concerns over deforestation and biodiversity loss, CAMPA, initiated in 2002 and subsequently refined through judicial orders, emerges as a pivotal framework for mitigating the adverse impacts of forest land diversion (Pandey et al., 2021). However, while CAMPA delineates overarching guidelines, the success of afforestation efforts relies heavily on localized factors and contextual nuances. Compensatory afforestation programs have been implemented in nations like India to offset the loss of forest areas diverted for hydropower projects. This has increased physical intervention with natural landscapes, but long-term effects have not been researched adequately (Asher and Bhandari, 2021). This informs us the significance of in-depth evaluations of CAMPA plantations at the regional level, such as those undertaken by the Maharashtra Forest Department since 2010. The success of CAMPA plantation initiatives in western and central Maharashtra is influenced by a complex interplay of factors spanning ecological, socio-economic, and governance dimensions. Stakeholder and local community involvement have been shown to be crucial factors in CAMPA plantation’s success.
Several studies have analysed the concept and project of compensatory afforestation from an economic and political perspective (Ghosh, 2017; Valencia, 2019; Asher and Bhandari, 2021). These studies, in general, concentrate on the colonialism of Indian forest governance, unfavourable incentives and the inadequate application of reforms and protections, and the ‘maze of land laws’ that describes the long-inhabited, fiercely struggled and tenure-ambiguous forests of India (Valencia, 2019). Though a highly ambitious policy for deforestation, compensatory afforestation has many flaws in accountability (Kerr, 2013; Tambe et al., 2022). All things considered, the approach doesn’t seem to be in the best interests of the woods or the communities where deforestation occurs or when plants are used to counteract it. Aspects like community participation in afforestation, species selection, and human intervention in various plantation activities are also imperative.
The significance of empowering communities and fostering a sense of ownership through participatory initiatives lies in their ability to enhance plantation outcomes and support sustainable resource management (Dyer et al., 2014). A key element of effective forest restoration and management techniques is community involvement in afforestation initiatives. This approach, which is also known as participatory forestry, incorporates local needs and expertise into conservation initiatives to improve ecological results and community support (Chhatre and Agrawal, 2009).
Some studies show plantation sites’ ecological appropriateness has a significant impact on their success. In addition, species selection is a significant factor in plantation results. With an increasing focus on native species that sustain regional biodiversity and ecological services, species selection is crucial to these programs. The selection of species also takes into account the needs and preferences of the community, including the possibility of non-timber forest products or cultural significance (Bozzano et al., 2014).
Plantation activities involve a range of human interventions, from planting and site preparation to post-planting maintenance and protection. These interventions combine traditional ecological knowledge with scientific concepts of forest ecology and restoration to lead them more success (Stanturf et al., 2014). Research conducted highlights the significance of site-specific evaluations in determining favourable regions for establishing successful plantations. Locals frequently take part in these projects, which can involve planting enrichment crops, conserving water and soil, and providing fire and grazing protection (Le et al., 2012).

3 Research gap

By reviewing existing policies and implementation methods and identifying practical gaps, this study concluded that afforestation initiatives under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) in India are critical to addressing environmental challenges; however, the success of these efforts may depend on various factors. Therefore, this present work examines the status of CAMPA plantations in western and central regions of Maharashtra based on empirical evidence with the aim of identifying key success factors. To assess the challenges and practical outcomes; field surveys, SWOT analyses and stakeholder interviews were conducted.
Using empirical data and stakeholder perspectives, we present outstanding case studies that perfectly capture the essence of successful CAMPA plantation efforts. The study provides a brief overview of the founding ideas and objectives of CAMPA for the western and central areas of Maharashtra and delves into the elements that lead to effective plantation outcomes, including species selection, community engagement and adaptive management techniques. The relevance of this study is on the same line as of objectives of CAMPA itself and is consistent with broader requirements for sustainable land management and ecosystem protection. Understanding the intricacies of reforestation projects and their effects on regional ecosystems, communities, and biodiversity is crucial given the growing global environmental concerns. This study intends to produce insights that cut across regional borders and form the foundation for best practices in afforestation and ecosystem restoration globally by investigating the elements that contribute to the success of CAMPA plantations in Maharashtra. Additionally, the findings of this study have consequences for environmental policy decision-making and policy formulation. Evidence-based insights into the efficacy of reforestation strategies are crucial as governments struggle with the enormous challenge of striking a balance between environmental sustainability and development needs.
By elucidating the success factors of CAMPA plantations, this research aims to equip policymakers with actionable knowledge to improve the effectiveness and resilience of afforestation programs, thereby contributing to the broader agenda of sustainable development and environmental protection. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to identify and analyse the factors that contribute to the success of CAMPA plantation initiatives in Western and Central Maharashtra and particularly aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the factors that contribute to successful CAMPA-Plantation results contribute to Western and Central Maharashtra.

4 Study area and methodology

4.1 Study area

Maharashtra is ecologically diverse, featuring tropical deciduous forests, semi-evergreen forests, and scrublands. These forest types harbor species such as Tectona grandis, Madhuca indica, and Terminalia tomentosa, supporting a variety of fauna like blackbucks, leopards, and bison. The region’s demography includes tribal and rural communities that depend on forests for livelihoods, including fuelwood, fodder, and non-timber forest products. The study area spans varied topographies, from the rocky terrains of Jalna to the fertile valleys of Panhala. With annual rainfall ranging from 400 mm in Ahmednagar to over 3000 mm in Thane, the ecological dynamics of the region provides a rich context for CAMPA plantation success.

4.2 Importance of Maharashtra as a case study area

Maharashtra was selected due to its significant CAMPA activity, offering diverse terrains and socio-ecological challenges. The state’s extensive forest cover and history of CAMPA implementation make it a valuable model for afforestation studies. Unlike urbanized states like Delhi, Maharashtra represents rural-tribal dynamics and ecological restoration potential, essential for replicating successful afforestation practices across India.
Maharashtra was purposefully selected for this study due to its significant involvement in CAMPA plantations. These plantations are crucial for offsetting forest land diverted for non-forest purposes, making Maharashtra a relevant and impactful region for investigating factors influencing plantation success. In contrast, Delhi, as a primarily urban area, lacks the extensive forest cover and plantation initiatives that characterize Maharashtra.
Within Maharashtra, nine CAMPA plantation sites were chosen across the western and central regions, reflecting diverse terrains and challenges. These sites were selected based on criteria such as historical plantation data, vegetation types, soil properties, and accessibility, ensuring a representative sample for analysis. These sites are shown in Figure 1 made using QGIS open-source software.
Figure 1 Geographic distribution of nine CAMPA plantation sites across Maharashtra, displayed using QGIS
The nine CAMPA plantation sites scattered across Maharashtra showcase a diversity of terrains and challenges. Alibag in Thane boasts deep soil but struggles with steep slopes and summer water scarcity. The grouped sites of Budholi, Amboli, Warasgaon, Nigadi, and Roha all experience rocky terrain and wildlife interference, despite receiving decent rainfall. Yawal in Jalgaon benefits from good soil depth near a lake at the foot of a hill, but the hilly landscape itself presents logistical difficulties.
Jalna, near its namesake city, has potential for water resource development due to its location, but the land itself is quite rocky with limited topsoil. Similarly, Sinnar in Nashik enjoys good rainfall but has a rocky area at the base of a hill with poor soil quality. Panhala in Kolhapur offers suitable soil and rainfall, but faces challenges due to steep slopes and the presence of bison. Wai in Satara features good soil depth at the base, transitioning to a rocky surface with thin soil and lower rainfall in other areas. Daund in Pune has a small water source but contends with large stones and variations in soil quality.
Finally, Hiware Bazar in Ahmednagar (now, Ahilyanagar) stands out for its strong community involvement, but faces limitations due to low rainfall. This diversity in soil types, water availability, and geographical features underlines the need for a multifaceted approach to CAMPA initiatives across Maharashtra.
The Table 1 mention vegetation cover, soil type and weather across nine CAMPA plantation sites in Maharashtra, highlighting differences in vegetation cover, soil types, and weather conditions. It shows how diverse environmental factors, such as rainfall, soil fertility, and vegetation types, have been considered by including diverse sites. For instance, Alibag has dense forests with deep soils and high rainfall, while Wai faces challenges with rocky soils and low rainfall. All this information was written by directly observing these sites. The references support these descriptions, offering context from relevant literature on forest management and ecology. This comparison helps understand the site-specific factors impacting CAMPA plantations in the region.
Table 1 Vegetation cover, soil type and weather across nine CAMPA plantation sites
No. Site name Vegetation cover Soil type Weather References
1 Alibag, Thane Dense natural evergreen forests
at hill base		 Deep but eroded on steep
slopes		 High rainfall during
monsoon; warm summers		 Manibhai, 2024
2 Budholi, Amboli (Murud),
Warasgaon (Roha), Nigadi
(Mahsala), Roha		 Sparse vegetation; natural tree
regrowth potential		 Rocky, shallow soil; low
erosion		 Decent rainfall; warm
and humid summers		 Sawarkar, 2014
3 Yawal, Jalgaon Deciduous vegetation; proximity
to diverse tree species		 Good soil depth near water
bodies		 Moderate rainfall; hilly
and steep terrain		 Naphade et al., 2021;
Patil and Wagh, 2023
4 Jalna Scattered trees; potential for
grassland and hardy species		 Rocky, hard surface; limited
topsoil		 Low rainfall; prone to
bacterial root issues		 Dsouza et al., 2024
5 Sinnar, Nashik Sparse vegetation; shrubs and
karvand species present		 Rocky with thin soil;
moderate fertility		 Good monsoon rainfall;
moderate summers		 Sawarkar, 2014;
Kanchan et al., 2024
6 Panhala, Kolhapur Dense vegetation; suitable for
fruit and native trees		 Fertile but thin on steep
slopes		 High rainfall; moderate
temperatures		 Sapkale et al., 2022; Supekar and Patil, 2022
7 Wai, Satara Patchy vegetation; suitable for
neem, babul		 Rocky with thin soil layers Low rainfall; warm and
dry climate		 Pundarikakshudu and Sujata, 2017;
Tari et al., 2024
8 Daund, Pune Scattered vegetation; potential
for native shrubs		 Variable: rocky and fertile
areas		 Low rainfall; dry and
warm summers		 Katna et al., 2022
9 Hiware-Bazar, Ahmednagar Sparse vegetation; contour
planting of aloe vera and shrubs		 Rocky with limited soil Low rainfall; drought-
prone conditions		 Nayak et al., 2019;
Kumari et al., 2020

4.3 Data collection strategy

The present study employed a mixed-methods approach to gather comprehensive data on CAMPA plantations in western and central Maharashtra (Table 2).
Table 2 Data sources, methods and stakeholders
No. Data source & method Stakeholder(s) Analysis method
1 Site observations Researcher SWOT analysis
2 Input/discussions with forest ranger (implementing officer), village heads & observations at site Forest officers & researcher Qualitative analysis (any two most important themes/identified factors)
3 Survey of subject experts/key informants Experts, professionals Importance ranking/scoring of themes/ factors
The discussions were conducted in three iterative rounds:
·First round: Initial factor identification in each SWOT category based on participant input and input from local residents and forest officials. One village head and two to three panchayat (village constituency) members were in communication with two forest officials (forest rangers) at each location. But, these feedbacks were observed on field at site level for validation. Here, more focus was on observations rather than opinion of locals and forest officials.
·Second round: These factors are validated through discussion, with an emphasis on eliminating duplication and bringing results into line with socioeconomic and ecological contexts. Village leaders and forest officials were once more urged to verify identified factors and concentrate on ecological and socioeconomic contexts.
·Third round: Prioritization and finalization of factors, emphasizing practical relevance and feasibility for CAMPA implementation. This is achieved in the second stage of study by asking or ranking technical and managerial factors identified during field visits and SWOT analysis.
In order to observe and recommend SWOT analysis for these nine sites, site visits and face-to-face conversations with forest officials were carried out in 2018 and 2019. Experts on various topics were contacted through surveys starting in 2022-2023 to get their opinions on the factors that were found to be crucial to CAMPA plantations’ success. This iterative approach enhanced the robustness of the findings, ensuring that the identified factors were representative and actionable. Nine CAMPA plantation sites, selected for their diverse ecological characteristics and levels of stakeholder engagement, underwent thorough field investigations. Researchers directly observed vegetation cover, soil conditions, and discussed potential threats with local residents by spending almost 5-10 days at each plantation site. This data, combined with discussions with forest rangers, informed a SWOT analysis at each site. This analysis identified site-specific strengths (e.g., favourable rainfall, community support), weaknesses (e.g., water scarcity, wildlife interference), opportunities (e.g., promoting natural regeneration), and threats (e.g., inappropriate species selection).

4.3.1 Site observations and SWOT analysis

The SWOT analysis was a key methodological approach used in this study, involving discussions with diverse stakeholder groups to identify, validate, and prioritize relevant factors. The participants included forest officers, local community leaders, academicians, and representatives from NGOs. This diversity ensured a comprehensive perspective, capturing both technical expertise and on-ground realities.

4.3.2 Stakeholder interviews and site observations

Discussion with forest rangers monitoring these plantation sites and observation of researchers were used to identify important themes or factors needed for the success of plantations. Only two top important themes were asked for success of plantations and themes were observed at plantation site.

4.3.3 Survey of subject experts and importance ranking

In-depth interviews with experts and professionals in relevant fields were used to assess the relative importance of the identified themes and factors. Total 60 subjects’ experts responded to survey. This provided valuable insights into the critical technical and managerial aspects for enhancing CAMPA plantation success. More than 600 key informants were invited to fill online survey to rank and give importance to identified factors of success of plantation. Surveys were sent via LinkedIn Platforms, official mails collected from websites of organizations. A total of 60 key respondents responded to this survey from fields such as 31 development sector professionals (rural development, forest management, collectives, community livelihoods, etc.) and 10 academics (researchers and professors in subjects such as environmental sciences, botany, etc.). 19 students (final year of graduate, postgraduate and doctoral courses in subjects such as environmental science, botany, etc.). The survey achieved a response rate of 10%, which may limit representativeness and leads to non-response bias (Barclay et al., 2002). To mitigate potential bias, respondents were selected from diverse groups, including forest officers, researcher development professionals, etc. The care was taken to ensure nearly equal participation of these diverse groups in invited surveys and responses. Future studies could increase response rates by employing hybrid approaches like in- person interviews and incentives. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in discussions and interviews, ensuring their voluntary participation and understanding of the research's purpose. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained throughout the data collection and analysis process.

4.4 Data analysis

This multi-pronged approach, combining field observations, SWOT analysis, and stakeholder perspectives, allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the complex factors influencing CAMPA plantation success in Maharashtra.

4.4.1 Qualitative analysis

Thematic analysis was employed to identify recurring patterns and themes in the interview responses with forest rangers. Very basic level of questions and answer were described using observations and highlights of discussions with forest rangers-implementing and monitoring officers at site level. The purpose was to identify recurring patterns and themes related to plantation success factors and challenges.

4.4.2 Quantitative analysis

Comparative ranking and order of importance techniques were used to assess the relative significance of different factors identified in the SWOT analysis, stakeholder interviews and observation at plantation site. Bar charts were used to visually represent the frequency and distribution of responses.

4.4.3 SWOT analysis

·The SWOT analysis is presented with a systematic description of the social-ecological context for each site. This description includes details on the site’s location, climate, topography, soil characteristics, dominant vegetation types, land use patterns, and community demographics. This contextual information provides a foundation for understanding the specific factors influencing plantation outcomes at each site. The number of discussions at each site for validation with forest officials and village leaders were conducted twice.
·The SWOT analysis is divided into biophysical and social factors to enhance clarity. Biophysical factors include aspects such as soil quality, water availability, topography, and climate, while social factors encompass community engagement, land tenure issues, and institutional support.
·Vague points in the analysis are elaborated upon. For example, “human disturbance” in Wai, Satara, specified as encroachment by local communities for grazing or fuelwood collection.

4.4.4 Factors contributing to success

·The level of agreement with the identified success factors is quantified by reporting the percentage of stakeholders who agree with each factor. This provides a clearer picture of the consensus among different groups regarding the importance of specific practices for successful CAMPA plantations.

4.4.5 Ranking of key informants

·The X-axis in the figures represents the rank assigned to each factor by the key informants, with 1 being the most important and 8 being the least important. The Y-axis represents the factors for success of plantations.
·Details about the key informant interviews are added to the methods section. This includes information on the selection criteria for participants (e.g., expertise in forestry, involvement in CAMPA implementation), measures taken to address personal biases (e.g., ensuring diverse representation of stakeholders), and the backgrounds of the informants (e.g., academic, professional, community-based).

5 Results and discussion

5.1 SWOT analysis of plantation sites

In the SWOT analysis conducted for CAMPA plantations in Maharashtra, several trends emerged. Across multiple sites, dense natural forests, suitable rainfall, and good soil depth were identified as key strengths, providing a conducive environment for plantation activities. However, common weaknesses were also observed, including difficult terrain, water scarcity, rocky soil, and interference from wildlife. These factors hinder effective plantation management and survival. The SWOT analysis across the nine CAMPA plantation sites in Maharashtra highlights site-specific strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, reflecting the unique ecological and socio-economic conditions at each location.

5.1.1 Alibag, Thane

The dense natural evergreen forests and heavy monsoon rainfall that define Alibag’s ecological setting offer a strong basis for the growth of vegetation. However, afforestation initiatives face major obstacles due to steep slopes and summertime water scarcity. Possibilities include using natural regeneration and planting contour-stabilizing plants. The existence of tribal communities and community-driven strategies is advantageous from a socioeconomic standpoint. Even so, postponed funding distributions make it more difficult to carry out scheduled activities on time. To improve ecological sustainability and further involve the community, fruit trees can be planted at the foot of the hills and Gram Sabhas can be organized (Table 3).
Table 3 SWOT analysis for Alibag, Thane
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Dense natural evergreen forest at the middle and base of the hill.
High rainfall during monsoon, which can be stored		 ·Tribal settlement with nature: Represents the community’s connection to their land and surroundings
Weaknesses ·Difficult to monitor due to steep slopes, heavy rains in monsoon, and warm summers
Limited water availability in summer		 ·Delayed funding: Delayed funding disbursement, undermining timely implementation of planned activities
Opportunities ·Potential for natural regeneration and introduction of soil-stabilizing plants
·Scope for soil and water conservation
·Huge scope for planting shrubs along contours		 ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Participatory planning and increasing awareness of ecological benefits
·Potential for cultivating fruit trees at hill bases to involve local people
Threats ·Cutting of trees for firewood collection
·Inappropriate planting of teak on hilltops with poor soil		 ·None

5.1.2 Budholi, Amboli, Warasgaon, Nigadi, Roha

Even though the soil depth is shallow, these sites benefit ecologically from adequate rainfall and little soil erosion. However, the presence of dense vegetation and rocky soil makes plantation operations difficult. An opportunity exists to concentrate on the growth of trees that are already there rather than establishing new plantations. One of the main advantages from a socioeconomic standpoint is the participation of tribes in conservation initiatives. Funding issues and hold-ups continue to be a major vulnerability that affects how initiatives are carried out. Two possible tactics to engage the community and guarantee long-term results are encouraging the growth of fruit trees at the foot of hills and organizing Gram Sabhas (Tabale 4).
Table 4 SWOT analysis for Budholi, Amboli (Murud), Warasgaon (Roha), Nigadi (Mahsala), Roha
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Suitable rainfall
·Less soil erosion despite shallow soil depth		 ·Tribal settlement with nature: Represents the community’s connection to their land and surroundings
Weaknesses ·Hard, rocky soil
·Disturbance caused by dense vegetation		 ·Delayed funding
·Funding challenges
·Impact on implementation
Opportunities ·Focus on the growth of naturally existing trees instead of new plantations ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Participatory planning and increasing awareness of ecological benefits
·Potential for cultivating fruit trees at hill bases to involve local people
Threats ·Presence of wildlife, which may interfere with plantation activities ·None

5.1.3 Yawal, Jalgaon

The Yawal site offers favorable plantation conditions due to its sufficient water availability and good soil depth at the base of the hill (Tabale 5). The ecological balance can be greatly improved by planting species like Tectona grandis and Mangifera indica and conserving soil and water by using contour trenches. Strong community involvement is visible on a socioeconomic level, but funding delays caused by bureaucracy impede advancement. Local management and involvement can be further strengthened by setting up community gatherings and encouraging participatory planning.
Table 5 SWOT analysis for Yawal, Jalgaon
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Good soil depth at the hill base
·Water availability		 ·Tribal settlement with nature: Represents the community’s connection to their land and surroundings
Weaknesses ·Hilly and steep slope
·Work challenges		 ·Delayed funding
·Funding challenges
·Impact on implementation
Opportunities ·Tectona grandis, Mangifera indica, Syzygium cumini at base
Terminalia officinalis, Bombax ceiba on hilltop
·Hill contour
Broad and deep trench
Soil and water conservation		 ·Community meeting under a tree: Symbolizes traditional village gatherings for collective decision-making
·Collaborative planning with maps: Represents participatory efforts to manage local resources
·Gram Sabha resolutions: Highlights the importance of local governance and planning documents
·Hands joined in collaboration: Reflects community-driven management and shared responsibility
·Village planning for sustainable development: Focuses on managing nearby natural areas effectively
·Fruit tree cultivation
·Base of hills: Ideal locations for planting fruit trees
Threats ·Wildlife presence
·Rainy season access issues		 None

5.1.4 Jalna

Among the ecological features of Jalna are the plantation-supporting seasonal water streams that occur during the monsoon (Table 6). Nonetheless, the hard and stony surface makes planting and soil management difficult. Plant root bacterial infections and funding delays are significant socioeconomic problems. Planting species like Terminalia officinalis and Bombax ceiba in appropriate locations and enlisting Gram Sabhas to participate in conservation and planning initiatives present opportunities. Enhancing community awareness of ecological benefits can also yield long- term results.
Table 6 SWOT analysis for Jalna
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Presence of water streams that flow during the monsoon period None
Weaknesses ·Rocky and hard surface limits soil management and planting
·Threats from bacterial infections to plant roots		 ·Delayed funding
·Impact on implementation
Opportunities ·Tectona grandis, Mangifera indica, Syzygium cumini at base
·Terminalia officinalis, Bombax ceiba on hilltop
·Hill contour
·Broad and deep trench
·Soil and water conservation		 ·Community meeting under a tree: Symbolizes traditional village gatherings for collective decision-making
·Gram Sabha resolutions: Highlights the importance of local governance
·Local involvement: Encouraging community participation in conservation efforts
·Hands joined in collaboration: Reflects community-driven management and shared responsibility
·Village planning for sustainable development: Focuses on managing nearby natural areas effectively
·Participatory planning: Engaging community members in decision-making processes
·Increasing awareness: Educating locals about ecological benefits
·Fruit tree cultivation
·Base of hills: Ideal locations for planting fruit trees
Threats ·Deer feeding on Azadirachta indica leaves, leading to reduced tree growth
·Blackbucks feeding on planted trees, risking plantation damage		 None

5.1.5 Sinnar, Nashik

The Sinnar site benefits from comparatively cooler summers and good monsoon rainfall, which lower evapotranspiration and create a favorable plantation environment. However, there are ecological difficulties because of the rocky terrain and shallow soil at the hill base (Table 7). Locals’ close proximity to conservation initiatives demonstrates their socioeconomic interest in them, but effective implementation is hampered by delayed funding disbursement. Planting karvand shrubs, organizing Gram Sabhas to increase ecological awareness, and digging deep and wide trenches to conserve soil and water are some opportunities.
Table 7 SWOT analysis for Sinnar, Nashik
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Good rainfall during monsoon: Suitable conditions for plantation
·Weather is less hot during summer: Reduces evapotranspiration loss		 ·Local people’s residence nearby: Strong interest in conservation efforts
Weaknesses ·Rocky area with less soil at the base of the hill: Plants struggle to survive ·Delayed funding disbursement: Undermines timely and effective implementation
Opportunities ·Deep and wide trenches along contours: Improves water and soil conservation
·Plantation of shrubs like karvand: Helps conserve soil and water
·Shrubs on contours with cattle-proof trenches: Enhances soil and water conservation		 ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Participatory planning and increasing awareness of ecological benefits
·Fruit tree cultivation at the base of hills: Ideal for planting fruit trees to boost local involvement
Threats ·Wildlife presence: Wild boars may disturb plantations None

5.1.6 Panhala, Kolhapur

Panhala boasts an ecologically hospitable climate with plenty of rainfall and plantation-grade soil (Table 8). Steep slopes complicate plantation operations, though, and bison threaten sapling survival by damaging trees and crops. Socially, the locals are highly motivated to resolve conflicts between people and wildlife and to preserve plantations. To effectively engage the community and address wildlife concerns, opportunities include encouraging fruit tree cultivation at hill bases and organizing Gram Sabhas for participatory planning.
Table 8 SWOT analysis for Panhala, Kolhapur
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Rainfall and soil are very suitable for plantation: Provides ideal conditions for plant growth ·Local people’s interest: Villagers are motivated to conserve and address human-wildlife conflict
Weaknesses ·Steep slopes: Increases difficulty in plantation and conservation efforts ·Delayed funding disbursement: Hinders timely and effective project implementation
Opportunities ·Fruit tree cultivation at the base of hills: Engages local communities in conservation efforts
·Deep and wide trenches in barren areas: Can significantly aid water retention and soil conservation		 ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Participatory planning and raising awareness of ecological benefits
Threats ·Bison grazing on crops: Human-wildlife conflict due to the presence of Bison, Bison damage farmer crops and may eat planted trees None

5.1.7 Wai, Satara

One of the Wai site’s ecological advantages is the base’s good soil depth, which promotes plant growth. However, the opportunities for vegetation are limited by rocky terrain and little rainfall. From a socioeconomic perspective, efficient transportation and operations are made possible by good road access; however, progress is still hampered by funding delays. Opportunities lie in planting water-efficient species like neem and babul and investing in small-scale irrigation to maximize the potential of limited resources. Organizing Gram Sabhas to involve the community in participatory planning can help make projects even more successful (Table 9).
Table 9 SWOT analysis for Wai, Satara
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Good soil depth at the base: Supports plant growth effectively ·Easy accessibility: Presence of good roads enhances transport and operations
Weaknesses ·Less rainfall and rocky surface: Thin soil layer limits vegetation growth ·Delayed funding disbursement: Affects timely and effective implementation
Opportunities ·Planting water-efficient species: Neem, babul, gyricidiya, and bombax ceiba are suitable for low-water areas
·Investing in irrigation: Planting a smaller area with efficient irrigation can improve results		 ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Encourages participatory planning and raises ecological awareness
Threats None identified for this site

5.1.8 Daund, Pune

Daund has an ecological advantage thanks to a small water source that can sustain summertime irrigation. Large stones, however, impede site preparation and plantation operations. The close proximity to local homes and forest nurseries promotes community involvement from a socioeconomic standpoint. Delays in funding disbursements continue to be problematic. Possibilities include forming Gram Sabhas to promote cooperation among residents and increase ecological awareness, as well as modifying planting plans to account for land variations (Table 10).
Table 10 SWOT analysis for Daund, Pune
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Small water source available: Can be utilized for irrigation during summer ·Proximity to forest nursery and local residences: Enables community participation in conservation
Weaknesses ·Presence of large stones on site: Hinders plantation and site preparation
·Uneven ground with obstructive stones: Indicates a need for levelling and site conditioning		 ·Delayed funding disbursement: Affects timely and effective implementation of activities
Opportunities ·Planting species based on land variation: Adapting to both rocky and fertile soil areas can optimize results ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Encourages participatory planning and ecological awareness among locals
Threats ·Wild herbivores population: Can damage planted trees and vegetation None

5.1.9 Hiware Bazar

In terms of ecology, Hiware Bazar is noteworthy for its use of deep trenches along contours, which effectively conserve water and soil (Table 11). Rocky terrain and little rainfall, however, limit the number of plantation options. Strong community involvement guarantees active participation in plantation maintenance and protection from a socioeconomic standpoint. Focusing on a variety of tree species that can withstand dry conditions, growing fruit trees, and putting aloevera along boundaries to save water are some opportunities. Ongoing threats like drought and inappropriate plant species can be addressed by organizing Gram Sabhas and raising ecological awareness.
Table 11 SWOT analysis for Hiware Bazar
Aspect Ecological details Socio-economic details
Strengths ·Use of deep and wide trenches along the contour: Effective for water retention and soil conservation
·Conserved grassland: Supports soil and water conservation		 ·Strong community engagement: Locals actively participate in plantation protection and maintenance
Weaknesses ·Less rainfall: Limits the growth of certain plant species
·Rocky, stony areas with some soil: Reduces options for plantation.		 ·Delayed funding disbursement: Hinders timely project execution
Opportunities ·Diverse tree plantation: Focus on trees that can survive in arid conditions
·Fruit tree cultivation at the base of hills: Involves locals in conservation
·Planting Aloe Vera along contours and boundaries: Helps conserve water effectively		 ·Mobilizing Gram Sabhas: Encourages participatory planning and ecological awareness among locals
Threats ·Continuous drought over years: Affects plant survival and growth
·Mango trees unsuited for this condition: Due to lack of water and rocky soil		 None
The SWOT analysis revealed distinct ecological and socio-economic factors that critically influence the success of CAMPA plantations in Maharashtra. Ecological strengths, such as abundant rainfall in regions like Sinnar, Panhala, and Yawal, and favorable soil depth at the base of hilly terrains, provide a solid foundation for plantation activities. These natural advantages underscore the potential for effective afforestation if appropriately managed. However, ecological weaknesses, including rocky terrains and poor topsoil in areas like Daund and Jalna, coupled with limited water availability during summer, challenge sapling survival and growth.
Opportunities exist to leverage natural regeneration processes and introduce soil-stabilizing plant species, particularly in sites with steep slopes and eroded areas. However, threats like wildlife interference, as seen with bison in Panhala and blackbucks in Jalna, and access difficulties during monsoons necessitate targeted mitigation strategies. These challenges highlight the importance of site-specific planning and the adoption of adaptive ecological practices to enhance plantation success.
On the socio-economic front, strong community engagement, exemplified by Hiware-Bazar, emerges as a significant strength. Local participation in plantation activities fosters a sense of ownership and contributes to the sustained protection and maintenance of plantations. Conversely, weaknesses such as delayed funding disbursements and a lack of technical training among stakeholders hinder effective implementation and reduce the quality of interventions. Opportunities to mobilize Gram Sabhas for participatory planning and increase ecological awareness among communities offer pathways to address these socio-economic challenges. However, threats like limited land availability, driven by competing developmental pressures, necessitate careful prioritization of afforestation sites.
Integrating ecological and socio-economic insights, the study suggests targeted interventions like soil and water conservation measures, species selection aligned with site conditions, and enhanced community engagement. Adaptive management practices, combining technical innovations with participatory approaches, are essential for addressing site-specific challenges and ensuring the long-term success of CAMPA initiatives. This cohesive understanding provides a framework for optimizing plantation outcomes while balancing environmental and socio-economic priorities.
Opportunities exist in mobilizing Gram Sabhas for participatory planning and increasing ecological awareness among local communities, which could bolster engagement and sustainability. However, threats like limited land availability due to competing developmental pressures underscore the need for strategic interventions.
By separating these factors into ecological and socio-economic categories, the analysis offers a comprehensive framework for addressing site-specific challenges.

5.2 Factors for success of plantations

The following observations were noticed by analyzing opinions of key informants for significance and comparative assessment of these identified factors. These are responsible for success of CAMPA plantations as mentioned below:
(1) Irrigation: Irrigation in the first two years after planting was urgently needed. In particular, areas where summer is hot and dry, which is the case everywhere in the study area, require irrigation in the first two years. In the first few years, irrigation ensures the basic need for survival, i.e. water, which is an essential resource for plantations (Tomar et al., 2003).
(2) Old, matured saplings: Saplings older than two years should be planted which have more resistance and adaptability towards environment. Older sapling has more resistance and adaptive capacity to adjust with surrounding environment (Del Tredici, 2001).
(3) Large width cattle proof trenches: These are playing important role to conserve water, soil as well as to protect from various animals. Cattle proof trenches are popular and old practice in conservation (Gour, 2006).
(4) Vegetation on the contours: Vegetation of Aloe vera and Carissa carandas which are planted or naturally occurring on contours are playing very important role to conserve soil and water (Wollni et al., 2010). They are also acting as a compound wall in order to protect plantation (Stavi, 2022).
(5) Availability of funds at the right time: Before the plantation, funds should be available in order to have good quality of work.
(6) Involvement of local people: It has been observed that Gram Sabha (village panchayat-representatives) was a very important to involve local people in overall process of CAMPA plantations. Wages given during work and involvement of villagers at each stage of plantation process are playing important role in success. Participatory plantation activities have shown more success due to belonginess to plantations (Szulecka and Secco, 2014).
(7) Flexibility of the plantation model, planning, implementations: As many sites vary up to a large extent due to different environmental, social, economic factors; there should be flexibility in the planning, implementations of CAMPA plantations at site (beat) level.
(8) Use of the succession process while restoring the forest: Trees in the forest have grasses, shrubs, herbs, etc which act as a supplementary system for various nutrients and microbes, etc (Whisenant, 2005). While restoring the forest or planting plants, it should be considered.
(9) Collaboration with the state universities: There are many state forest universities and students, researchers which if involved with forest department, can play important role in this process to do it better as the site variability is more. Research and students’ involvement can be a game changer (Nambiar and Kallio, 2008).

5.3 Ranking from key informants

5.3.1 Comparative ranking

Stakeholders involved in plantation initiatives generally agree on the importance of certain factors for project success. All groups, including academicians, development professionals, and students, emphasize the need for large cattle-proof trenches and vegetation promotion methods like planting Aloe vera on the border of plantation area (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Comparative ranking of the success factors of CAMPA plantations
Additionally, community involvement in planning at the local level is seen as critical by everyone. However, there are some differences in viewpoints. Academicians place a higher value on irrigation and using older saplings, while development professionals prioritize flexibility in planning and collaboration with universities. Students take a more balanced approach, assigning slightly less importance to all factors compared to the other groups. Despite these variations, a common concern for all stakeholders is the availability of funding for plantation activities. This highlights the challenge of resource allocation in these projects.
Overall, there’s a shared understanding among stakeholders that these factors, along with community engagement, are essential for achieving successful plantation initiatives.

5.3.2 Ranking as per order of importance

The ranking assessment as per order of importance reveals valuable insights into how different groups view factors critical for successful tree plantations. While there are some variations in ratings, everyone agrees on the importance of community involvement. All groups view involving local communities in planning, particularly at the village council (Gram Sabha) level, favourably (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Ranking of the importance of factors for the success of CAMPA plantations
There’s a shared concern for securing funding. Availability of funds at the right time receives moderate ratings across the board, highlighting a common challenge in securing resources. When it comes to caring for young trees, there’s agreement on the value of protection. Building large, animal-proof trenches (cattle-proof trenches) is rated highly by all groups. However, opinions differ slightly on providing water during the first two years and planting larger, older saplings. Academicians consider these more important than development professionals and students.
Interestingly, all groups seem to undervalue the importance of vegetation promotion techniques like planting Aloe vera along slopes (contours). These techniques receive lower ratings compared to other factors, potentially suggesting a need for greater awareness of their benefits in moisture conservation.
This also explores how different groups view flexibility and collaboration. While everyone sees some value in these aspects, development professionals and students consider them more important than academics. Flexibility in the plantation model and planning receives moderate to high ratings, highlighting its perceived value in adapting to different situations. Collaboration with universities receives moderate ratings, suggesting an acknowledgment of potential benefits from partnerships.
Despite differences in priorities, all groups recognize the critical importance of community involvement and building large, cattle-proof trenches for protecting young plantations. Another common worry is funding availability, which emphasizes the difficulty of allocating resources in a timely manner. However, from every angle, methods such as planting aloe vera to conserve moisture are underappreciated, indicating that their ecological advantages need to be better understood.

5.4 Study limitation and future scope

Monitoring with satellite-based data for assessment of afforestation and strategies way to consider ecological, technical, managerial and socio-economic aspects for successful afforestation programs should be focus while going way forward. The present study is region specific and missing direct measurements lacking quantitative aspects up to certain level.

6 Conclusions

The success of CAMPA plantations in Maharashtra hinges on a multifaceted approach that combines technical interventions with strong community engagement. Ensuring timely irrigation during the early stages, using mature saplings, and implementing large cattle-proof trenches are essential technical steps to enhance survival rates and foster healthy plantation growth. Additionally, the selection of native species suited to local environmental conditions is critical for long-term ecological sustainability.
Effective management practices, including the active involvement of local communities, are key to ensuring the success of CAMPA initiatives. Mobilizing Gram Sabhas for participatory planning and engaging stakeholders through training programs ensures local ownership and sustained protection of the plantations. Timely and efficient fund disbursement remains a challenge, but addressing this can significantly improve the implementation of these afforestation efforts.
Finally, a flexible and adaptive approach is essential for addressing the diverse ecological and socio-economic conditions across different plantation sites. By tailoring strategies to local needs, promoting research and innovation, and ensuring accountability, CAMPA can become a model for sustainable afforestation and ecosystem restoration, contributing to both environmental protection and community development.

Acknowledgements

The research’s field work is supported by IIFM, Bhopal, India in the form of contingency grant for research scholar. We acknowledge participation of forest officials and other subjects’ experts like academicians and students in the survey of this study. We also thank reviewers of this manuscript.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available at data repository at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25921213.v3. Na- mes of the participants are not included in the data due to privacy issues.

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