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Journal of Resources and Ecology >

2025 , Vol. 16 >Issue 3: 671 - 686

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.006

Human Activities and Sustainable Development

Structural Characteristics and Formation Mechanisms of Ancient Canal Villages and Towns Based on Spatial Perception —The Case of Pushi in Western Hunan, China

  • TANG Chengjun , 1, 2, * ,
  • QIU Tian 1 ,
  • LI Yiling 1
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  • 1. College of Architecture, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha 410076, China
  • 2. School of Architecture and Planning, Hunan University, Changsha 410082
* TANG Chengjun, E-mail:

Received date: 2024-08-27

  Accepted date: 2025-01-10

  Online published: 2025-05-28

Supported by

Humanities and Social Science Research Youth Fund Project of Ministry of Education(23YJC850017)

Key Project of Teaching Research and Reform in Hunan Province(HNJG-2022-0094)

Research Project on Degree and Graduate Teaching Reform at Changsha University of Science and Technology(1205015)

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Abstract

The spatial configuration of historical canal villages and towns is crucial to their overall structural framework. Moreover, it serves as a fundamental element in the manifestation of architectural style, the promotion of vitality, and the enhancement of environmental conditions. This study used Google Maps and field research to examine the spatial perception of Xiangxi Pushi Ancient Town by analyzing node space, street space components, and visual data. It investigates the spatial structure characteristics of ancient canal villages and towns at three levels: point-like space, line-like space, and point-line association. Furthermore, this study evaluates these characteristics based on three perspectives: macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic. The text subsequently elucidates its formation mechanism, along with the cultural aspects of watersheds following the construction of canals. The results showed that the point space of Pushi Ancient Town is relatively complete; however, the overall structure is loose, and the core is not strong. The linear space utilizes the main street as its framework, while certain internal and external streets and lanes have isolation and insufficient connectivity. Simultaneously, some important nodes are marginalized, and the connectivity and overall synergy between the point and line spaces require improvement. This study provides a theoretical foundation and practical reference for examining the sustainable development of villages and towns, as well as watershed culture in the post-canal era.

Key words： canal villages and towns; spatial perception; spatial structure; formation mechanisms; social networks

Cite this article

TANG Chengjun , QIU Tian , LI Yiling . Structural Characteristics and Formation Mechanisms of Ancient Canal Villages and Towns Based on Spatial Perception —The Case of Pushi in Western Hunan, China[J]. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 2025 , 16(3) : 671 -686 . DOI: 10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2025.03.006

1 Introduction

Water commercial transportation is the primary conduit for the three distinct life spaces and cultural domains of the ancient canal. They establish connections between various geographical and temporal components while also carrying out the constructed environment in urban and rural landscapes (Wang et al., 2024). Unlike the conventional agricultural farming methods, the ancient canal villages and towns were constructed through trade and industry. These villages and towns served as spatial units within the group living structure, reflecting the fluctuations of the trade industry along the ancient canal. They possessed unique characteristics rooted in regional culture, rendering them historically significant and contemporary. In 1982, introducing the initial group of nationally renowned historical and cultural cities marked a significant milestone in integrating cultural heritage preservation with the development of historical towns (Shi et al., 2023). Consequently, safeguarding and transmitting watershed culture has emerged as a prominent subject of interest.
In recent years, a growing body of research has focused on the spatial structure characteristics of villages and towns along the historical canal. Researchers have explored various perspectives to gain a deeper understanding of these phenomena. Several theoretical frameworks have been used to investigate the spatial structural features of towns and villages along the historic canal. For example, the theory of urban identity was used to study the relationship between canals and urban identity in European historic towns (Sullivan and lanagan 2018). The theory of urban revitalization was applied to study the process of heritage tourism promoting the urban revitalization of historic canals in Amsterdam (Pinkster et al., 2017). Moreover, the theory of urban spatial transformation was used to study the transformation process of European historic canal towns and the effects of the shift from waterways to pedestrian paths (Schwarz, 2021). The evolution of social structure and physical space of traditional villages has been analyzed using the theory of infrastructure (Shi et al., 2023). The structure and morphology of historical landscapes in ancient towns have been elucidated through the “anchoring-layering” theory (Pan et al., 2023). Furthermore, the storytelling styles of ancient towns and new towns have been compared using the “spatial triad” theory (Wang and Qin, 2024). Researchers have used various technical tools to analyze the spatial structural features of cities and villages along the historic canal. Quantitative analysis examines the impact of tourism on the spatial renewal of historic cities along the Venice Canal (Rogerson, 2017). Cross-cultural analysis is used to examine the cultural importance of ancient towns in the context of globalization (Perry, 2019). The cultural aspects of the water transport economy were investigated using the linear geography technique (Zhou et al., 2014). The historical evidence technique analyzed the evolutionary features of historical and cultural towns along the Grand Canal (Wu et al., 2019). The intercept-containing model and the Bootstrap self-sampling technique were used to evaluate the perceived accessibility to the development of historical tourist towns (Huang et al., 2020). Furthermore, the evolution law of the spatial development of ancient canal culture cities and their driving forces are studied using TFN-AHP weighting analysis, entropy weighting method, and GIS analysis (Zhao and Zhang, 2023). Researchers have investigated the spatial structural features of the towns and villages along the historic canal. For instance, the origins of urban form and its connection to land and life have been extensively analyzed from a morphological perspective (Oliveira, 2018). A cross-cultural comparative perspective has illustrated the spatial remodeling of ancient towns in the context of globalization (Baker et al., 2019). A historical urbanization perspective has also been used to study the role of canals in the process of urbanization in Europe (Kirk, 2020). Combining the cultural heritage and urban identity perspectives examines the role of European old towns in urban identity formation (Harrison, 2021). Consequently, the perception of the old town clusters as a heritage tourism site has been investigated from the standpoint of the “cognitive-emotional-whole” (Li et al., 2021). Establishing cultural spaces in prehistoric settlements has also been interpreted from the perspective of non-genetic inheritance (Zhao et al., 2022). Furthermore, the influence of historic town characteristics and spatial system aspects on perception was examined using the tourist gaze viewpoint.
A literature review indicates that most existing studies have focused on the functional organizational attributes, planning and development, and spatial evolution of cases along the canal. Research methodologies predominantly depend on conventional and contemporary technologies, and the social network analysis method (SNA) methods are rarely used. Few studies examined the structural characteristics of the ancient villages and towns along the canal, considering geographic, industrial, and ethnic origins, among other factors. The historical ancient canal villages and towns in ethnic regions are inadequately studied, with even fewer investigations into the spatial structure of multi-ethnic villages and towns along ancient waterways. There have been limited investigations regarding the spatial perception of the spatial organization and developmental mechanisms of ancient towns. The ancient town of Pushi, located along the Yuanshui Canal, was chosen for this study, wherein we conducted systematic analyses focusing on spatial perception to investigate the characteristics and formation mechanism of the spatial structure. This allows for a deeper exploration into the significance of the spatial structure of the ancient canal villages and towns while also supporting the preservation of the watershed’s cultural heritage and the spatial renewal of the ancient towns.

2 Data sources and research methods

2.1 Study area

The study is focused on Pushi, an old town in Xiangxi that dates back to the Southern Song Dynasty. Situated on the western bank of the middle reaches of the Yuan River, Pushi lies in the southeast of Luxi County in the border region of Huaihua City and Xiangxi Prefecture. With three active historic districts, two ancient relics, and 204 old structures, the ancient town has the benefit of river transportation and a long trade and business history. The architectural remnants and clan culture are also well-preserved and deeply ingrained. With ethnic minorities comprising over 70% of the population, Pushi Ancient Town is rich in ethnic cultures. Through historical division and change, the indigenous groups have progressively evolved into multi-ethnic groups such as the Yao, Dong, Miao, and Tujia, forming a regional ethnic culture based on Tujia cultures and blending with Han Chinese culture. The agricultural output in the Yuan River Basin and the economic growth of the Yunnan-Guizhou region from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the “Republic of China” created opportunities for the commercial development of the ancient town. They attracted a sizable influx of foreign residents and business migrants from the thirteen provinces in Hubei, Yunnan, and Guizhou. (Shi, 2021). Until the early years of the twenty-first century, the ancient town’s historic buildings and street spaces experienced multiple renovations, all while preserving their unique texture. The expansion of tourism and the reorganization of industries were also contributing factors. It has been acknowledged as a “National Famous Historical and Cultural Town” (2010), “National 4A Scenic Spot” (2016), “Hunan Province Beautiful Minority Characteristic Villages and Towns” (2017), “Hometown of Hunan Folk Culture and Art” (2018), along with various other accolades, owing to its profound historical heritage and distinctive ethnic cultural characteristics.

2.2 Research methods

2.2.1 Classification of Spatial Perception Elements

The space is classified into two categories: point-like space (such as ancestral halls, God’s temple of the shrine, public spaces, and traditional dwellings) and line-like space (such as external streets, main streets, and internal streets), as depicted in Figure 1 and Table 1. This classification is combined with the status quo of the ancient town of Pushi and the established research on spatial perception elements (Huang et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023).
Figure 1 Distribution of spatial elements in Pushi Ancient Town
Table 1 Classification of spatial perception elements in Pushi Ancient Town
Spatial structure characteristics Form Number* Examples
Point-like spaces Ancestral halls 2, 11, 12, 40 Li Ancestral Hall, Ji Ancestral Hall, Qinglian Shidi, etc.
God’s temple
of the shrine		 8, 27, 30, 33, 36, 41, 42 Wanshou Palace, Shangfang Temple, Luban Temple, Dabei Palace, etc.
Public spaces 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39 The visitor center, Pier, Ancient City Wall, Money Farm, Square, Lotus Garden, etc.
Traditional dwellings 7, 9, 10, 14, 17, 19, 23, 25, 28,
29, 31, 38		 Yanjia Compound, Jiajia Compound, Jijia Triple Yard, etc.
Line-like spaces External streets Baipu Road, Puyang North Road, Puyang Middle Road
Main streets Hou Street, Shangzheng Street, River Road
Internal streets Taiping Street, Tangjia Road, Zhongzheng Street, Jijia Road, etc.

Note: The meaning of the numbers in this column refers to Figure 1.

(1) Point-like space can be classified into the following types: First, the presence of clan ancestral halls, such as the Li ancestral hall and Ji ancestral hall, serves as a manifestation of kinship relationships. Second, there are altar temples dedicated to social deities, namely Wanshou Palace, Shangfang Temple, and Luban Temple, which serve as conduits for transmitting folk beliefs and religious cultures. Third, the urban landscape encompasses various public facilities, including piers, ancient walls, and lighthouses, influenced by geographical and commercial factors, and is closely intertwined with the villagers’ daily lives. Finally, traditional dwellings and accompanying structures, such as the Yanjia and Jijia compounds, reflect the region’s deep-rooted cultural heritage and social organization.
(2) Line-like space. The linear spatial configuration of the ancient town of Pushi has a fish skeletal structure, which can be categorized into three distinct types based on their functional distinguishing characteristics. The external street and alley spaces, such as Bailu Road, Puyang North Road, Puyang Middle Road, and others, are vertically distributed in northern and southern directions. These spaces are the primary venue for exchanging goods and resources between the ancient town and the external environment. The extension of these spaces to the south and north partially mirrors the developmental trajectory of the ancient town. Furthermore, three main street spaces within the historic town exist as natural connections between shops, guild halls, and handicraft workshops. These spaces play a crucial role in facilitating the movement of villagers to various point-like locations for their daily behavioral activities. In conclusion, the internal street space exhibits a complex and intricate network extending towards the Yuanjiang port. Notably, Kangjia Road, characterized by its several lanes and resemblance to a leaf vein, is a prominent example of this feature.

2.2.2 Research models

The primary data about the historic town of Pushi is acquired through field observation, Google Maps, and a literature survey. The design and calculation of spatial network models are facilitated using SNA. One method used in this study is qualitative induction, which involves referencing pertinent literature (Chen et al., 2022; Li, 2022; Huang et al., 2023) and doing field research. see Table 2. This approach involves integrating the spatial components of the ancient town, acquiring point space, line space, and visual labeling on the map to carry out the qualitative research effectively. The subsequent step involves doing a quantitative analysis of SNA. This entails constructing a network model and examining the accessibility of point space, connectivity of line space, and the correlation between point space nodes and line space. The details of this analysis are as follows: (a) A point space network model analysis is conducted using a spatial perception scale of 350 m as the radius. The point space is assigned the name ‘point’, and the relationship between point perception and point space is represented as ‘line’. Furthermore, the relationship between point space and point perception is also represented as a ‘line’. (b) The term ‘line’ represents a perceptual relationship between two nodes, where a value of ‘1’ indicates said link and a value of ‘0’ indicates the opposite. According to the linear spatial network model analysis, the street space is represented as a ‘point’ and a ‘line’. This representation is repeated multiple times, indicating that the street and alley space is a continuous line. In the study of the linear spatial network model, the street space is represented as a ‘point’, and the intersection between streets and lanes is denoted as ‘1’, while the vice versa is denoted as ‘0’. (c) Analysis of the ‘Point + line’ network model, employing the identical pre-analysis procedures as (a).
This study selected 350 m as the scale for spatial perception relationships, primarily due to the demographic composition of the old town, which is predominantly comprised of elderly individuals and children, whose mobility and spatial awareness are limited. This scale is appropriate given the compact arrangement of streets and alleys in the old town, which ensures good accessibility; thus, 350 m corresponds to a five-minute walking distance, effectively encompassing the principal living area. Furthermore, this distance may signify the town’s compact spatial configuration, consistent with research on comfortable walking distances in environmental psychology, resonating with numerous design principles that advocate for the “5-minute living circle”.
Table 2 Research indicator system and interpretation
Dimensions Indicators Translate Interpretation or formula
Macroscopic Densities Measures the closeness and overall completeness of the connections between nodes in the network P = L / [ n ( n − 1 ) / 2 ]
P is the network density; L represents the number of connections present in the network; and n denotes the number of nodes
Mesoscopic Lambda analysis According to the degree of correlation (K value) between nodes, the network nodes are divided into different sets, thus reflecting the network hierarchical clustering relationship. In this case, the larger the K-value, the greater the degree of association and the more solid the structure of the relationship between the nodes The edge correlation of any pair of points within the point set itself is greater than the edge correlation of any pair of points consisting of a point from the point set and a point external to the point set, and a point set can be said to be a Lambda set by satisfying the above condition
Microscopic Proximity centrality Denotes the sum of the shortest paths between a node and other nodes, with smaller values representing closer centrality C A D i − 1 = n − 1 ∑ d i j ,  where , C A D i − 1 = n − 1 ∑ d i j ,  where , centrality of node i; C A D i − 1 = n − 1 ∑ d i j ,  where , signifies the shortest path length between node i and node j; n indicates the total number of nodes inside the network
Degree centrality Measuring individual power in a spatial network presents the degree of linkage of individuals in the network C R D i = C A D i / ( n − 1 ) C R D i = C A D i / ( n − 1 ) is the relative centrality of point i; C R D i = C A D i / ( n − 1 )is the absolute centrality of point i (i.e., the degree of the point)

Note: Table 2 mainly refers to the following references: Dai et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2021; Zheng and Wu, 2022.

3 Characteristics of the structure

3.1 Point-like space structure

3.1.1 Point-like space structure network

Network density refers to the level of interconnectedness between point-like locations. A higher value indicates a stronger relationship. Out of the four types of point-like space network diagrams (Figure 2), the ancestral halls space has the lowest network density, measuring 0.167. It has a low connection density and the weakest connections. Topo-logically, the spatial configuration of ancestral halls is characterized by a limited number of nodes, a relaxed structure, and distinct imagery points isolated from one another. The association between the Li Ancestral Hall, the Ji Ancestral Hall, the Qinglian Shidi, and the Lihedong Hao is weak. Conversely, the God’s temple of the shrine and the traditional dwellings exhibit higher network densities, specifically 0.238 and 0.242, respectively. Furthermore, their spatial structure is more comprehensive and condensed, suggesting that clan affiliation notably impacts the spatial arrangement.
Figure 2 Point-like space spatial social network topology
In the network topology of point-like spatial combinations, the combination of ‘ancestral halls + traditional dwellings’ has a network density of 0.333, representing the highest value. There are two types of spatial linkages: close links, which show that families value their clan relationships, and the close connection between traditional dwellings and their clan temples dedicated to their ancestors. These connections are easily accessible and highly comprehensive. The network density of the combination of God’s temple or shrines + traditional dwellings is higher, measuring 0.268, indicating a strong correlation between the topology of these two distinct point-like spaces. The network density of the public spaces and three categories of point-like space are 0.228, 0.204, and 0.243, respectively. A smaller difference suggests a more even spatial distribution of public facilities and a stronger connection with the nodes. The dock and the historic city wall are located along the Yuan River, creating a connected and accessible network. These structures act as essential hubs for public facilities. The overall framework of the point space network features extensively interconnected nodes, exhibiting a significant degree of completeness. Connections exist among various functional types of point spaces. Nevertheless, there is a portion that lacks connections (0) and has weak links, resulting in an overall imbalance. For example, the visitor center experiences significant marginalization.

3.1.2 Spatial clustering of point-like spaces

The hierarchical relationships between the subgroups within the four spatial categories are displayed in a Lambda cluster diagram to examine the degree of association and stability and thoroughly investigate the construction logic of the point-like spatial structure network of the ancient town of Pushi (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Point-like spaces spatial network clustering map
The Lambda set level of the ancestral halls space is 2, with an edge correlation degree ranging from 0 to 1. The correlation degree level between Qinglian Shidi and Lihedong Hao node networks is the highest, indicating a stable structure. This stability reflects the enduring nature of the traditional rite of passage society’s multi-level clan relationships. However, the number of existing clan temples and clan space nodes is limited due to population loss and a lack of strong traditional architectural protection awareness. Nevertheless, significant clustering relationships can still be observed, underscoring the stability of the spatial structure.
The Lambda collection hierarchy of the space of God’s temples of shrine consists of three levels, featuring edge associations that vary from 0 to 2. Level 1 features the Lu Ban temple, level 2 showcases the Wanshou Palace and Fuyin temple, while level 3 comprises the Dabei temple, Shangfang temple, General’s Well, and Kuomintang Army Base. These temples are closely linked to religious beliefs. Western Hunan is rich in folk beliefs, with local peasants participating in worship rituals dedicated to the Shegong and the Land temple. Wanshou Palace serves as the primary place of worship for the villagers in the northern region, whereas Luban Temple is the designated prayer space for the villagers in the central area. Conversely, Shangfang Temple and General’s Well are revered by the villagers in the southern region, who seek divine blessings to prevent calamities and attract good fortune.
The public spaces have a Lambda set level of 5, with side correlation ranging from 1 to 5. It is intimately linked to the daily behaviors of the villagers and is divided into five tiers: east, west, north, central, and south. The eastern part of the town is designed by the scattered arrangement of the Yuan River channel, including structures like the pier and the large pier square. The western tier constitutes a regional tier due to its specific geographical position and housing establishments such as the Embroidery House and the Adult Beauty Oil House. The northern layer comprises the newly constructed visitor center and its accompanying facilities. Conversely, the southern layer comprises Lotus Garden and other scattered places located at a considerable distance from the center of the historic town, following a straight-line trajectory. The center layer is the focal area where residents and tourists engage in heightened social interactions, exemplified by the Chinese Medicine Hospital in Pushi and the Grand Wharf Plaza. The spaces are discreetly dispersed, evenly distributed, and characterized by distinct geographical elements.
The Lambda set level of the traditional dwellings space is 5, indicating a high level of organization. The edge correlation is assessed on a scale of 1 to 5, with a higher rating indicating a stronger correlation. Furthermore, a significant association exists between the edges of the dwelling space and the gathering spot of each family group. To individuals involved in the timber trade, the Jijia mansion, located in the southern part of the historic town near Lotus Garden and the dock area, acts as the central complex of the Jijia compound. The distribution of levels on the first floor is based on the family’s trading requirements and landscape preferences, resulting in a beautiful and elegant setting. The remaining family compound dwellings and associated structures are classified as levels 2 to 5. They are located in the northern and central parts of the ancient town and are highly significant.
The ancient town is divided into 13 layers of clustering, each representing a different type of point-like space. The distribution of these layers is well-balanced, exhibiting better correlation and inclusiveness at the edges. This reflects an even distribution of material and cultural nodes throughout the town. The traditional borders defined by clan, geography, and other factors have dissolved, facilitating enhanced interaction and integration due to regional urbanization. The prevalence of established prominent clans is more pronounced in specific districts than in immigrant clans. Furthermore, the distribution of the ancient town varies based on different geographical attributes. The traditional prominent surname clans hold more power in the district distribution hierarchy than the immigrant clans. However, there are variations in the distribution of different geographic qualities within the ancient town.

3.1.3 Point-like space proximity centrality and degree centrality

Table 3 presents the computed proximity centrality and degree centrality of the point space network in Pushi Ancient Town. Traditional dwellings exhibit the highest proximity centrality, measuring 67.000, which indicates shorter distances to other point spaces, making them more accessible and centrally located. The high centrality suggests that local residents value their familial traditions considerably. However, the level of internal connection between ancestral halls is relatively low, with a centrality degree of 4.000. Only Lihedong Hao and Qinglian Shidi have some relevance and low centrality, which can be attributed to the small number of nodes, dispersed layout, and relatively long distances.
Table 3 Mean statistics of point-like spaces spatial hierarchy parameters
Parameters Types
Ancient halls God’s temple of the shrine Public spaces Traditional dwellings
Proximity centrality 4.000 12.000 44.105 67.000
Degree centrality 0.667 1.200 2.667 3.684

Note: The values in the table are averages of four types of point spaces.

Degree centrality assesses a node’s significance in a network by evaluating the quantity of its connections. Nodes that exhibit a greater degree of centrality are situated nearer to the center of the network. The average degree centrality values for the four types of point-like spaces are 0.667, 1.200, 2.667, and 3.684, respectively. These values indicate notable differences, suggesting that the core of various spatial structures in the ancient town varies considerably. The spatial topological network of traditional dwellings exhibits a higher degree of connectivity, indicating a stronger impact and control, suggesting that these houses are located closer to the core. The space occupied by ancestral halls has the lowest degree of linkage. The results of the analysis differ from the degree of centrality due to their lower proximity to the center, implying that they are not central nodes in the network but exert significant influence and control. These spaces are considered essential and iconic within the ancient town.

3.2 Line-like space structure

3.2.1 Line-like space status statistics

The Pushi Ancient Town features a ‘shuttle’ shape, focusing on worshipping nature while embodying the pursuit of good fortune and longevity. The layout features mountains and water from east to west, with the ancient town running from north to south. The town features a central hub with two less densely populated areas. Commercial trade depends on water transportation, with residents residing alongside the water. The linear space extends to the riverside to cater to the everyday needs of residents and facilitate commercial growth. Despite multiple conservation and regeneration initiatives, the old town has maintained its original small-scale spatial configuration (Table 4).
Table 4 Statistics on the current status of some line-like spaces in the ancient town of Pushi
Name Width Length Properties
Shangzheng Street 3-6 m 520 m Stone road, front shop, back house, and imitation ancient buildings (e.g., Sujia courtyard, Wujia compound, etc.)
Hou Street 2-4 m 310 m Stone road, front shop, and back house, with historical buildings (e.g., Qinglian Shidi, Xiangxi painting house, Meijia compound, etc.)
River Street 4-8 m 750 m Concrete road, near the Yuan River
Tangjia Street 2-3 m 185 m Stone-paved roads, residential houses, mostly historical buildings (e.g., Zhoujia compound, dart boards, money farm, etc.)
Zhongzheng Street 5-7 m 500 m Stone Road, front shop, back house, antique buildings
Yangzong Street 2-4 m 140 m Stone road, shops, modern buildings
Taiping Street 2-5 m 230 m Slate roads, shops, and antique buildings (e.g., Pushi Chinese Medicine Hospital, Lijia Academy, Wu’s compound, etc.)
Cross Street 7 m 230 m Asphalt road, commercial, modern buildings
Jijia Street 2-3 m 220 m Stone road, front shop and back house, antique buildings (Jijia compound, Jijia triple compound, etc.)

3.2.2 Line-like space structure network

The linear spatial arrangement radiates outward from the three main streets, which are the central axis (Figure 4). The overall network density is 0.153, indicating a relatively low level of connectivity. The network of Zhongzheng Street, linked to Shangzheng Street and River Street, which runs parallel to River Street, is situated near the dense intersection of River Street, Hou Street, and Shangzheng Street. This indicates that during the conservation and renewal of the old town, the three main streets are well connected to both the external and internal street and alley spaces. Conversely, the street network outside Puyang Middle Road and North Road is somewhat disconnected, suggesting that the villagers primarily utilize the internal street area and have limited external communication. The internal street spaces, named after family names, are connected to their corresponding traditional dwellings, a less rigid structural network. These spaces serve as significant traffic areas within the traditional compounds.
Figure 4 Line-like space spatial structure network topology diagram

3.2.3 Spatial clustering of line-like spaces

Lambda (Figure 5) analyses were performed to determine the hierarchical structure and inclusiveness of the line-like space. Figure 5 depicts that the maximum and minimum side associations are 13 and 1, respectively. The river street along the Yuan River and the riverbank street have the highest association and hierarchy, as well as the ancient town’s central linear spaces and important structural elements. They connect various establishments such as shops, guild halls, and handmade workshops, fostering high participation and spatial inclusiveness. The intermediate level refers to the commercial and exterior traffic linear space, including areas such as Tangjia Road, Yifang Road, Yujia Road, and Jijia Road. Most of these roads are oriented east-west, serving as essential connections between the various locations where villagers engage in their daily activities. These roads are considered the central region of the traditional architectural style of the ancient town. The external street space at the two ends of the ancient town has a lower level of organization. Most of this organization consists of the dynamic traffic linear space built after the country’s founding. This space extends north-south, has limited correlation, weak interior connection, and lower participation and inclusion levels. Overall, there is no discernible distinction among the several tiers of linear space, suggesting that the linear space arrangement in Pushi Ancient Town has been progressively enhanced to establish a logical and efficient internal and exterior transportation network.
Figure 5 Line-like space spatial clustering map

3.3 Point-like space and line-like space correlation analysis

3.3.1 Structural texture diagram of point-like space and line-like space

The linear extent of Pushi Ancient Town is predominantly aligned with the boundary of the Yuan River, exhibiting a nearly perpendicular shape (Figure 6). A high density and a dispersed arrangement, with fewer dead-end roads and enhanced connectivity, characterize the road network within the town. Through the analysis of spatial relationships between points and lines, it is evident that the ancestral halls, traditional dwellings, and streets are closely interconnected. This connectivity promotes communication among clans and embodies the old town’s principle of ‘bringing clans together to live harmoniously.’ Furthermore, the presence of the water system in Pushi Ancient Town has influenced the organization of the street space along the Yuanjiang River. This reflects how the traditional belief of residents living near water has shaped the ancient town’s spatial layout, emphasizing the commercial economy’s impact, specifically the dock culture.
Figure 6 Point-like spaces and line-like spaces texture map

3.3.2 Point-like and line-like space structure network

The network density of traditional dwellings and line-like space topology maps is the largest, measuring 0.351, as indicated by the four types of point-like space and three types of line-like space system maps (Figure 7). This network structure is stable. Nodes of typical big houses like the Meijia compound exhibit strong integration power and close connections with Houjie Street, Taiping Street, and Zhongzheng Street. The network density of public spaces and the line-like space topology map is 0.253, indicating the lowest value and a weak correlation. This phenomenon arises from the proliferation of dispersed public facility nodes interconnected with the clan, geographic, and business edges. Upon primarily evaluating the linear space, it becomes evident that the proximity and impact of the link between Embankment Street, River Street, and various point-like spaces are significant. These areas serve as the eastern boundary of the old town of Pushi and are interconnected with the ancient town, playing a crucial role.
Figure 7 Point-like space and line-like space network topology diagrams

3.3.3 Spatial clustering of point-like spaces and line-like spaces

The cluster analysis of the Lambda set (Figure 8) indicates that the maximum side correlations between the ancestor halls, the God’s temple of the shrine, public spaces, traditional dwellings, and line-like spaces are 20, 30, 28, and 37, respectively. Among the minimum side correlations, the God’s temple of the shrine holds a value of 5, whereas the other three have a value of 2. This suggests that the hierarchical relationship between God’s temple of the shrine and the linear space is more stable than the other point spaces, emphasizing the traditional villagers’ focus on religious and cultural beliefs. Figure 8 depicts that public spaces exhibit the highest level of aggregation with the linear space, totaling 19 levels. This is attributed to the abundance of nodes, proximity to the linear space, and superior accessibility. Furthermore, a notable disparity exists between levels. Following the growth of the tourism industry, specific public spaces have become more singularly connected to the linear space, such as the Visitor Centre, which is exclusively linked to Baipu Road and Puyang North Road.
Figure 8 Point-like space and line-like space cluster analysis

3.3.4 Point-like spaces and line-like spaces proximity centrality and degree centrality

The average values of proximity centrality and degree centrality for point-like space and line-like space networks (Table 5) indicate that the proximity centrality between public spaces and line-like space is 97.654, demonstrating strong centrality. Conversely, the closeness measure between ancestral halls and temples of shrines in linear space is 65.500 and 68.947, respectively. This difference in proximity is due to the smaller number and more scattered distribution of these structures, leading to fewer connections and lower centrality in the densely populated areas of linear space.
Table 5 Mean statistics of point-space and line-space rank parameters
Parameters Types
Ancient halls + streets God’s temple of the shrine + streets Public spaces + streets Traditional dwellings + streets
Proximity centrality 65.500 68.947 97.654 75.422
Degree
centrality		 10.722 11.053 13.137 15.422

Note: The values in the table are averages of four types of point spaces.

The average degree centrality values for the network of point-like and line-like space are 10.722, 11.053, 13.137, and 15.422, respectively. Among them, the traditional dwellings exhibit the highest connectivity with the line-like space, indicating a strong core. Furthermore, it is evenly distributed within the ancient town and has excellent accessibility to the line-like space. Traditional dwellings like the Jijia compound and Ji Road typically have interconnected street areas. The level of connectivity between public spaces and linear space is high, characterized by a signifi-cant number of nodes and a robust linkage with linear space.

4 Mechanisms underlying the development of Pushi town’s structural features

The evolution of the old town is a dynamic phenomenon, and the distinctive geographical, industrial, and clan connections have shaped the distinct spatial configuration of Pushi. The center ground hypothesis (Wang et al., 2019) states that a hexagonal arrangement is an ideal way to use space. Nonetheless, the spatial growth party grows along the ideal axis due to the gravity and resistance of many causes. The analysis indicates that the spatial organization of the ancient town of Pushi is primarily influenced by its geographic, industrial, and ethnic characteristics.
(1) Geography: the internal processes that shape the structural features of the old settlement.
The ancient town is strategically positioned inside the curvature of the mountains and the river. The Wuling Mountains lie north of the Yuan River, while hills characterize the central area. Conversely, the riverbank area features flat terrain and a scarcity of land. The topography significantly influences the overall layout of the old town of Pushi. It is characterized by a large middle section and smaller ends, forming the fundamental outline of the town. The ancient town features a landscape contrasting significant water bodies and less prominent mountains. It possesses abundant water resources and a prosperous commercial culture that has thrived due to the advancement of waterways. The street configuration is focused along the riverbank and is intricately connected to the Yuan River. The active transport of goods via the river led to a considerable increase in population and merchandise. Thus, public amenities like wharves and other commercial facilities are pivotal hubs, creating a settlement configuration akin to a belt.
The topography and local scenery significantly influence the long-term development and layout of the old town.
(2) Trade: Pull-out mechanisms for forming structural features in ancient towns.
Pushi became a prosperous commercial hub during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties due to the convenient water transport of the Yuan River. The old town was filled with shops, attracting merchants from Hubei, Yunnan, Guizhou, and other regions. Different industries have their own ancestral deities that they worship, and merchants and local landowners willingly funded the construction and renovation of Guild Halls, community altars, and temples to provide material support. For example, merchant gangs built the carpentry Lu Ban temple in the area, creating a unified commercial pattern within the community altar temples. Furthermore, the development of the city is significantly influenced by the distinct amalgamation of ethnic cultures. Furthermore, the distinct blending of ethnic cultures significantly attracts tourists to the ancient town of Pushi. To accommodate the growth of tourism, the town has adjusted its linear space, expanding and improving certain areas. This includes creating a dynamic traffic space around the town, widening the cross street known as Taiping Street, and enhancing its capacity to accommodate tourists. Moreover, shops have been established along the street to cater to tourists' and locals’ needs. The growth of tourism exacerbates the need for public facilities space and the increased need for accessible street space, catering, accommodation, and other amenities. These requirements are strongly intertwined with the street space, contributing to the development of the spatial structure of the historic town.
(3) Kinship: Factors contributing to variations in the architectural attributes of ancient towns.
The physical evolution of the ancient town of Pushi results from the combined influence of clan culture and religious beliefs, forming a distinctive spatial structure over time. Clans hold a significant role in the internal social hierarchy, and the culture of clans plays a crucial role in shaping the spatial organization of the ancient town. Clans and ancestral halls in Pushi serve as the visible representation of ancestor worship. They are essential for the spiritual unity of the villagers and form the central structure of the settlement’s organization. These spaces provide robust support for various traditional houses to expand alongside them, creating a pattern of organic development from the inside to the exterior. Even if the functions are altered, it does not compromise their historical significance. As an illustration, Qinglian Shidi has undergone a conversion from an ancestral temple structure to a commercial building that incorporates exhibition capabilities. This transformation allows visitors to acquire knowledge about history and culture while enjoying leisure activities and entertainment, as well as purchasing cultural and creative products. Importantly, this conversion ensures the preservation of its cultural heritage. The historic town is called ‘Hunan Temple Township’ due to its abundance of religious temples and ceremonial practices. Taoist temples primarily serve as guild halls, strategically located near linear spaces and directly connected to the wharf. These temples function as both religious sanctuaries and gathering places for merchants. Furthermore, they serve as venues for leisure activities and can host rituals during specific periods. Social land worship is a significant practice in traditional agricultural communities. The “social God” is considered the earliest land deity, has a rich historical background, and represents the beliefs of the farming era. These worship sites are often situated within local neighborhoods and are significant for villagers as places for solace and tranquility.

5 Discussion

This study uses social network analysis to examine the structural characteristics of the ancient town of Puxi from the viewpoint of spatial perception, offering a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding the spatial dynamics and creation mechanisms of the ancient town. This method enables more effective analysis of the impact of spatial structure on social interactions and behavioral patterns among villagers, thereby emphasizing the significance of old town spaces in social relations. This method transcends the constraints of the conventional perception of the ancient town as a static physical entity, highlighting that the ancient town is not merely a geographical coordinate but also a dynamic social environment. This study demonstrates that spatial perception encompasses not just the arrangement of the physical world but is also profoundly shaped by social relationships, creating a dynamic and interactive interplay. This study emphasizes the social network aspects of ancient cities, illustrating how villagers forge connections through spatial interactions in their daily lives. This novel perspective offers insights into the dynamics of ancient settlements, specifically analyzing how cultural and social factors collectively shape their geographical attributes. The reconfiguration of space influences interpersonal relationships and significantly impacts local economic development and cultural heritage, offering new theoretical support for preserving and advancing ancient towns while fostering a renewed appreciation of their cultural significance.
Nonetheless, this study has many shortcomings. It primarily neglects villagers’ subjective spatial perceptions and fails to examine spatial perceptions from the tourists’ perspective. This deficiency limits the comprehensive understanding of the experiences of diverse demographic groups in historic towns, especially since the behaviors and perceptions of tourists may significantly differ from those of local inhabitants. Future research may focus on the differences in spatial perception among diverse demographic groups, specifically their behavioral patterns in daily life and tourism activities. Furthermore, it should conduct an in-depth analysis of tourists’ experiences and expectations in ancient towns, which could aid in developing more effective tourism management strategies, thereby improving tourist satisfaction and cultural experiences. The simultaneous inclusion of advanced multidimensional analysis tools, including behavioral geography and environmental psychology, facilitates multilevel data integration and enhances the understanding of the intricate link between spatial perception and behavior. Environmental psychology elucidates individuals’ emotional reactions to the ancient town’s spatial characteristics, whereas behavioral geography uncovers the influence of spatial configuration on human behavior. Moreover, a comprehensive analysis of the enduring impacts of the spatial configuration of ancient towns on cultural heritage preservation and local economic advancement will yield substantial scientific theoretical support and empirical evidence for protecting cultural heritage and the sustainable development of these towns. These research directions will improve the understanding of the interplay between space and society in historic towns, establishing a strong foundation for policy development and implementation.

6 Conclusions

In this study, we have analyzed the spatial organization and formation process of the ancient villages and towns along the transport, which is crucial for the socioeconomic development of these areas as well as the preservation of cultural heritage, since they represent a significant historical and cultural heritage, and a resource for cultural tourism. The following findings are drawn from the interconnection of the point space and line space structure of the ancient town of Pushi, serving as critical evidence of social connectivity.
The ancient town exhibits a point-like spatial configuration that is internally interconnected and comprehensive, yet its structural integrity is deficient, requiring substantial improvements in coherence and accessibility. The ancient town of Pushi exhibits a heightened point-like spatial network connectivity level, characterized by a lack of clear normative order between points, where this imbalance is evident. Moreover, at the Lambel clustering level, the four types of spatial clustering demonstrate effective communication and integration. However, the core space lacks clarity, and the cohesive force is relatively weak. Furthermore, the fundamental element of point-like spatial organization exhibits significant variation, characterized by limited internal connectivity among the nodes of clan temples, ancestral shrines, and altar temples dedicated to social deities. The nodes of public facilities are widely dispersed, displaying evident marginalization. Conversely, the structure of traditional compounds is relatively comprehensive, albeit more enclosed. Hence, to maintain the integrity of the overall spatial structure, it is imperative to promote the completion of the point space within the old town. This will help prevent the occurrence of gaps in the node space, improving the overall spatial integrity and accessibility. As an illustration, incorporating play pathways to promote the linkage between Lotus Garden and diverse point spaces facilitates interaction among inhabitants in different areas and augments the spatial comprehension of visitors to the historic town.
The openness and coherence of the three linear spaces in the ancient town need to be optimized. The spatial arrangement of the three primary streets exhibits high optimality. However, there is a noticeable isolation between the internal and external street spaces, resulting in a lack of overall openness in the flow lines. Notably, the linear space adjacent to the river, closely linked to the central commercial and external linear space, demonstrates a significant level of engagement. Conversely, the external street space exhibits low participation, a limited correlation with the interior, and a weak overall coherence. Based on the aforementioned, it is possible to partially modify the coherence of the linear space to augment its overall openness and connection, enhancing the internal level of the street experience. One potential approach involves the incorporation of additional east and west streets, facilitating the connection between Baipu Road and Dangui Lane and enhancing the spatial density of the northern streets. Alternatively, an extension of Taiping Street and its connection with Lower Horizontal Street could be considered to augment the length of the primary thoroughfare and sustain the overall visual coherence of the street network.
Certain significant point spaces inside the ancient town exhibit marginalization, necessitating contact enhancement with line spaces. The village has limited clan temples and ancestral halls, primarily situated at the entrance or along the axis. Furthermore, certain public facilities are marginalized, and regional guidance is inadequate. Furthermore, linear spaces are only connected by point spaces, resulting in a weak spatial perception among villagers and a limited behavioral activity space. Consequently, the attraction to tourists is insufficient, leading to a lack of strong experiential engagement. The enhancement of interactivity is contingent upon the quantity of point-like spaces. One approach to attaining this objective involves increasing the number of point-like spaces through strategies such as utilizing unused sites, introducing new interactive landscape nodes, and diversifying commercial spaces. These strategies aim to improve the permeability and interactivity of both point-like and linear spaces, ultimately enhancing their vitality. Conversely, the functionality of an individual node can be reinforced, or the associated commercial, cultural, and tourism amenities that support it can be expanded to extend the point space to the surrounding environment, enhance the accessibility of the nodes within the characteristic space, and augment their relevance to the linear space.
This research employs the social network methodology to explore the structural attributes of the ancient town of Pushi, focusing on spatial perception. The goal is to offer an objective interpretation of the mechanisms underlying its formation while partially disregarding the subjective spatial perception influenced by the behavioral interactions of the villagers. Furthermore, the study does not delve into the spatial perception of tourists, which is deemed inadequate. The future study will cover several aspects: first, it will explore how villagers and tourists perceive space subjectively, using analogies to clarify the impact of the spatial layout of the ancient town on their perceptions; second, more thorough analytical methods from various viewpoints will address the shortcomings of the quantitative analysis in the present study.

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