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Journal of Resources and Ecology >

2021 , Vol. 12 >Issue 6: 791 - 800

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2021.06.007

Ecological Restoration in Altay Region

Research on Ecological Protection and Restoration Measures in Altay Region based on the Coupling Perspective of the Mountains-Rivers-Forests-Farmlands-Lakes-Grasslands System

  • LI Yi ,
  • LIU Yujie ,
  • ZHANG Qiang , * ,
  • ZHU Sufeng ,
  • LIU Hao ,
  • LIU Shufang
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  • Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
*ZHANG Qiang, E-mail:

LI Yi, E-mail:

Received date: 2021-04-16

  Accepted date: 2021-06-15

  Online published: 2021-11-26

Supported by

The National Natural Science Foundation of China(41701601)

The National Natural Science Foundation of China(41871196)

The Scientific Research Project in Altay Region, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China(2019-529)

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Abstract

The adoption of both Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and a system perspective is a hot issue and an area in which there is much room for improvement in ecological protection and restoration. The study takes Altay region as an example, an area located in Xinjiang, China, which is an important ecological corridor of the national key functional area and the core area of the Belt and Road but has a fragile ecological environment and needs much enhancement in ecological protection and restoration. Guided by the concept of “mountains-rivers-forests- farmlands-lakes-grasslands (MRFFLG) system is a life community”, the coupling relationship of the various MRFFLG elements, the main ecological environmental problems and the integrated countermeasures for protection and restoration in Altay region have been analyzed in this study. The study shows that Altay region has a typical meta-ecosystem of mountain, oasis, and desert, and the connections by rivers and lakes make the ecosystem links within the region much closer. The interweaving of resource-environmental-ecological issues of the aquatic ecosystem, degradation of the quality of terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, grasslands and farmlands, the increased ecosystem fragmentation and ecological risks are the major ecological environmental issues in this region. This study takes the improvement of the ecosystem health and function in Altay region as the core goal of regional ecological protection and restoration. First, we establish a zoning governance pattern from the perspective of ecosystem integrity; second, we design governance strategies for different zones with the goal of synergistic improvements in the ecosystem functions; and finally, we clarify the key engineering tasks in different zones from the perspective of ecosystem services. Ecological conservation and restoration of the MRFFLG system is a prime example of the application and development of NbS in China. This paper constructs an analytical framework for identifying regional life communities, diagnosing ecological protection and restoration of zoning problems, and proposing classified solutions for ecological protection tasks for the protection of the MRFFLG system. This research will enrich the theory and technology for the protection and restoration of MRFFLG systems, and provide guidance for the practice of ecological protection and restoration in Altay region.

Key words： mountains-rivers-forests-farmlands-lakes-grasslands life community; coupling relationships; ecological protection and restoration; systematic management; Altay region

Cite this article

LI Yi , LIU Yujie , ZHANG Qiang , ZHU Sufeng , LIU Hao , LIU Shufang . Research on Ecological Protection and Restoration Measures in Altay Region based on the Coupling Perspective of the Mountains-Rivers-Forests-Farmlands-Lakes-Grasslands System[J]. Journal of Resources and Ecology, 2021 , 12(6) : 791 -800 . DOI: 10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2021.06.007

1 Introduction

The health and stability of ecosystems play an important role in the ecological security and sustainable human development (Costanza et al., 1992; Liu et al., 2019). The ecosystem has characteristics of integrity, systematic structure, and comprehensiveness, and requires overall protection, systematic restoration, and comprehensive management (Wang and Wang, 2017). Thomas et al. (2015) has found that coordinating restoration efforts across an entire region is up to nine times more cost-effective than local-scale planning. The ecosystem approach has been proposed internationally for systematic conservation and restoration (Christie et al., 1986). Taking ecosystems and ecosystem services into full consideration, foreign scholars have carried out a great deal of research and practice in nature conservation and ecological restoration (Francesc et al., 2014; Cohen-Schacham et al., 2016; Martin, 2017). At the same time, nature-based solutions (NbS) proposed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2012) have gradually evolved from their initial focus on climate change adaptation and mitigation to related areas of sustainable development (Mitter et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2020). NbS has received widespread attention, and it needs to continue to be practiced and promoted. The concept of “mountains-rivers-forests-farmlands-lakes-grasslands (MRFFLG) system is a life community” was proposed in the construction of ecological civilization in China. It emphasizes the need to establish a systematic mentality for managing natural resources and ecosystems, and to take the systematic management of MRFFLG systems as an important content of ecological civilization construction (Cheng and You, 2019). The core concept of ecological protection and restoration of an MRFFLG system is highly compatible with the concept of NbS.
As an emerging concept and method of overall protection, systematic restoration, and comprehensive management, studies on the ecological protection and restoration of MRFFLG systems are gradually increasing. Related studies have been mainly focused on the connotation characteristics (Li et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018), key contents (Zou et al., 2018), restoration paths (Cheng and You, 2019), mechanisms and institutions (Liu and Yu, 2016; Kong and Ma, 2018) and enlightenment (Zhang et al., 2017). Some scholars have summarized a series of ecological protection and restoration tasks and measures that are adapted to different regions from the theory and practice of “MRFFLG system is a life community” (Chu et al., 2019; Ma et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Ying et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020). However, relevant research is still in its infancy, and the theory and technology are still imperfect. Therefore, it is urgent to further strengthen and enrich the theory and technology.
Altay region is an important ecological corridor of the national key functional area in Xinjiang, China and the core area of the Belt and Road. The Irtysh River in this region is the only international river in China that flows into the Arctic Ocean. It is also one of the focal areas of cross-border water security issues of international concern, and an important area related to the image of China as an ecological power and ecological rights. The current research on the ecological environment of Altay region focuses on climate change (Han et al., 2019; Fan et al., 2020), vegetation cover (Yang and Xiong, 2018), precipitation change (He et al., 2017), soil pollution (Xu et al., 2021), and other focused issues. Most studies are only carried out based on the changes of individual environmental factors such as climate, hydrology, soil, and vegetation, and there are fewer studies on overall ecological environmental protection in Altay region, and a lack of comprehensive and systematic research on the ecological protection and restoration. Therefore, taking Altay region as an example, this studydiscusses the coupling relationship of MRFFLG elements in the region, analyzes the ecological environmental problems, and explores the countermeasures for ecological protection and restoration, in order to provide both an analytical framework for ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system, and a guidance and practice for ecological protection and restoration in Altay region.

2 The coupling relationship of MRFFLG elements in Altay region

To carry out ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system, we need to clarify the spatial layout and interaction of each element in the study area. The ecosystem types in Altay region are rich, with complete natural ecological elements such as mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, glaciers, wetlands, grasslands, and so on. There are interconnected, interdependent, and mutually constraining relationships among these elements (Zou et al., 2018), forming a unified whole with specific structures and functions (Peng et al., 2019).

2.1 Regional MRFFLG elements

Altay region is located in the hinterland of Eurasia, with the Altai Mountains in the north, Sawuer Mountain in the southwest, and Junggar Basin in the south. The topography is high in the west and low in the east, from the ridgeline of the Altai Mountains in the north to the hilly plains in the south. The topography has obvious terraced features (Fig. 1). The surface runoff mainly consists of Irtysh River, Ulungur River, and Jimunai hill stream. Irtysh River is an international river and the only outflow river in China belonging to the Arctic Ocean. There are 416 glaciers of various types in the region. Forests are mainly distributed in the sub-alpine and mid-mountain zones of the Altai Mountains and Sawuer Mountain with altitudes of 1300-2400 m and on both sides of the river valleys. Grasslands are mainly distributed between the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains and the northern edge of Junggar Basin.
Fig. 1 Land use of Altay region in 2020
The region has rivers, lakes, swamps, artificial ponds, and other forms of wetlands. The wetland protection rate is 90.8%. The region has vast forests, grasslands, and wetlands, which represents an important part of maintaining the ecological function of the Altai Mountains. The region has glaciers and alpine snow, and the structure of the ecosystem is relatively fragile and very sensitive to climate change. There are abundant biological resources and wild animal and plant resources. Many species are endemic to China or Xinjiang, and they are highly enriched in the biodiversity gene pool in China. The ecologically strategic location of Altay region is very important.

2.2 A typical meta-ecosystem of mountain, oasis and desert

Under the combined effect of topography and climate, Altay region has formed a typical meta-ecosystem of mountain, oasis, and desert in both arid and semi-arid areas (Kang et al., 2019). The region has the Altai Mountains and Sawuer Mountain, which are mainly distributed in the north and southwest. As the altitude decreases, glacial ecosystem, alpine meadow ecosystem, cold temperate coniferous forest ecosystem, desert steppe ecosystem, and other ecosystem types are distributed with the decreasing of the altitude. The Gurbantunggut Desert and its typical desert steppe ecosystem are distributed in the south of the region. Oases are mainly distributed in the central hilly valley plain area and the areas around rivers and lakes, in front of the Altai Mountains and the northern edge of Junggar Basin. The area proportions of the north, central, and south regions are about 32%, 22%, and 46%, respectively (State Forestry Bureau, 2014). In the meta-ecosystem of mountain, oasis, and desert, the mountains, rivers, forests, farmlands, lakes, grasslands, and other elements form an interactive and interconnected relationship through material circulation, energy flow, and information transmission (Zhang et al., 2017).

2.3 Ecosystem linkages are enhanced by the connection of two major water systems in the basin

The river ecosystem, lake ecosystem, and wetland ecosystem in Altay region extend from the mountains to the edge of the desert, becoming an important link between the mountains, the oasis, and the desert. This region consists of the Irtysh River system and the Ulungur River system, which play an important role as ecological corridors in linking important ecological source areas such as nature reserves, forest parks, and wetland parks. Irtysh River is the first major river in Altay region and is a snow-melting rain-fed river. The main tributaries of the Irtysh River are Kala Irtysh River, Kelan River, Burqin River, Haba River, and Beletzek River. Ulungur River is the second largest river in Altay region. It flows from west to east into Ulungur Lake, and it is an inland river. The main tributaries of the Ulungur River are Big Qinggli River, Little Qinggli River, Chaganguole River, and Bolgan River. At present, through projects such as the river-lake system connection, Ulungur River has formed a complete watershed with Irtysh River, which has strengthened the correlations between regional ecological quality and other aspects.

2.4 A regional ecological security system constituted by the network of MRFFLG elements

Altay region is located in the Altai Mountain Forest and Grassland Ecological Function Area. It is an important water source, natural ecological barrier, extremely important area for water conservation, mountains and forests, and biodiversity conservation in northern Xinjiang (State Forestry Bureau, 2014). The region has several nature reserves, such as Hanas National Nature Reserve, Uzilik Wetland Park, and Burqin Kanas Lake National Geological Park. With nature reserves and other important ecological spaces as the source area and water flow as the link, the ecological security pattern of the region is mainly expressed as “one axis, two screens, six corridors, and multiple nodes”. The one axis is the two rivers and one lake area with the mainstream of Irtysh River as the core. The two screens are the ecological barrier in the northern Altai Mountains and the ecological barrier in the southern desert area. The six corridors include Ulungur River, Haba River, Kelan River, Burqin River, Kara Irtysh River, and so on. The multiple nodes are the forbidden development zone and the intersections of ecological corridors in Altay region.

3 Identification of major ecological and environmental problems

Altay region attaches great importance to ecological environmental protection, and has made great progress in the management of nature reserves, restoration and treatment of the geological environment, and erosion control. However, due to the overloaded grazing of grasslands, over-exploitation of oasis agriculture and other anthropogenic activities, and the superposition of natural factors such as the fragile ecosystems in the study area and climate change, the ecological environment in Altay region has been damaged to varying degrees. Altay region faces problems of the interweaving of resources-environmental-ecological issues of the aquatic ecosystem, degradation of the quality of terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, grasslands and farmlands, the enhancement of ecosystem fragmentation, and increasing ecological risks. The regional ecosystem health and ecological security face greater challenges.

3.1 The interweaving of resource-environmental- ecological issues of the aquatic ecosystem

From the perspective of water resources, there are some indicators that drinking water in rural areas exceeds the standard, but the safety of drinking water has not been fully guaranteed. The groundwater level in some areas has continued to decline. There is an ecological water shortage in the river and lake ecosystems. From the perspective of water environmental quality, agricultural non-point source pollution has intensified in recent years, and water environmental pollution in some areas has appeared. As the second largest inland lake in Xinjiang, the water quality of Ulungur Lake was still inferior to grade V in 2019. From the perspective of water ecology, the previous shrinkage of wetlands such as Ulungur Lake has been recovered after years of treatment (Li et al., 2021). However, the overall ecosystem in Altay region is fragile and the regional water ecological security cannot be guaranteed. In addition, under these multiple pressures, the reproduction of flora and fauna, such as the downstream river valley forests and rare species of Hucho taimen, has been affected to some extent.

3.2 Degradation of the quality of terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, grasslands and farmlands

As affected by climate change, deforestation and reclamation, disorderly logging, overgrazing, pests and diseases, the area of secondary forests in the river valleys (which are mainly distributed in the main streams of the Irtysh River and the Ulungur River and its first-class tributaries) has been decreasing year by year, and the quality of forest stands has declined. Middle-aged and young forests are difficult to recover. Grassland overload is serious. The coverage of vegetation and the quality of grasslands are showing decreasing trends. The natural vegetation of deserts is damaged. The problem of soil erosion is more serious in some areas. The function of water conservation in forests and grasslands has declined. In recent years, the change of agricultural production methods (e.g., the popularization of drip irrigation) and the declining groundwater level have made the soil salinization of arable land in some areas more serious, soil fertility has declined, and the rural governance capacity is seriously insufficient. Basically, it is difficult to manage the ecological restoration of farmland ecosystems.

3.3 The enhancement of ecosystem fragmentation

Due to human activities, such as the construction of roads, diversion canals, fences and other facilities, the survival and migration of wild animals are at risk, and biodiversity is greatly threatened by the fragmentation of the ecological environment. The genetic exchange of wild animals is interrupted by the construction of facilities, the phenomenon of “islanding” is common, and it is difficult for small populations to survive due to inbreeding. Therefore, it is imperative to construct ecological corridors. The Mengxin beaver is the only species distributed in the Ulungur River and it is now in danger of extinction. The greatest threats to its survival are population isolation and habitat loss.

3.4 Increasing ecological risks and difficult to restore

Altay region is rich in mineral resources. Due to the long- term development of mineral resources, ecological spaces such as rivers, lakes and wetlands have been encroached to different degrees, the original natural landscape has been destroyed, the aquatic environment has deteriorated, soil fertility has decreased, and the grasslands have degraded. Grassland degradation has in turn intensified soil erosion, which may trigger geological disasters such as collapses, landslides and mudslides. The ecological risks in the source areas of the Irtysh-Ulungur River have continued to increase. Altay region contains glaciers and deserts, which are both sensitive to climate change. In the context of global warming, ecological environmental risks have increased. Due to the thin soil and low precipitation in Altay region, it is difficult to restore the ecology of the damaged areas. From the perspective of the ecosystem, carrying out ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system can effectively protect and restore the ecological environment and improve the comprehensive benefits.

4 Ecological protection and restoration ideas

Ecosystem theory considers humans and nature as a life community. The protection and restoration of regional ecosystems requires the enhancement of ecosystem health and function as a core objective. At the same time, there is a synergistic and balanced relationship between ecosystem services, which needs to be addressed and utilized in the process of ecological reconstruction. This study takes systems theory as the guidance, and focuses on the collaborative improvement of key ecosystem services such as the flowing of clear water, windbreak and sand fixation, soil conservation, ecological product supply and biodiversity conservation. It highlights the key point of water ecological protection, and the restoration of the ecological processes linked by water, and adheres to the policy of “nurturing mountainous areas, stabilizing deserts and optimizing oases”. It is necessary to plan and coordinate the overall ecological functions of Altay region, and transform the past mode of management of the individual elements into the systematic management of the MRFFLG system.

4.1 Taking ecosystem health and function improvement in Altay region as the core goal for regional ecological protection and restoration

Water resources are essential for human survival and development (Lu et al., 2021) as well as ecological security, especially in arid desert areas. In the arid area in the northwest which is short of water, water is not only the lifeblood of national economic development and the determining factor of the level of economic development, but also an important factor in maintaining the regional ecology. Due to economic and social development, the total amount of agricultural and domestic water consumption in the region is increasing, and the demand for regional water resources continues to rise. From the perspective of industrial development, the region is rich in grassland and mineral resources, but the development of both animal husbandry and mining industries needs the support of water resources. As the water tower and the life river of the Northern Xinjiang, the water resources of the region are crucial to the development of the Urumqi, Changji, Kelamayi, Hami and Turpan areas, and are the key to supporting the future development of the economic belt on the north slope of the Tianshan Mountains.
Irrational exploitation of water resources is an important cause of regional ecological degradation. Excessive use of water resources has led to the decline of groundwater levels, and the degradation of natural river valley forests, grasslands, rivers, lakes and wetlands. As the climate warms up, maintaining the ecology of river valley forests, grasslands and wetlands will undoubtedly require an increase in the protection of ecological water demand. In addition, water ecological risks caused by water conservancy project construction and industrial and agricultural water pollution are also important ecological risks. Therefore, the focus of regional ecological protection and restoration is to maintain the ecological security with water as the core, that is, to maintain the ecological security of the Irtysh River, the Ulungur River and the Ulungur Lake.

4.2 Establishing a zoning governance pattern from the perspective of ecosystem integrity

The key to the synergistic enhancement of ecosystem services in Altay region is to clarify the process of regional ecosystem service formation and supply, and to reasonably determine the functional orientation and utilization direction of different ecosystems, that is, to establish a zoning governance pattern from the perspective of ecosystem integrity. Located on the southern slope of the Altai Mountains, the Irtysh River forms a coupled system of material flow, energy flow, information flow and service flow from north to south with the rise and fall of the topography.
From the perspective of material flow, the airflow coming from the Atlantic Ocean can easily enter the region through the valley of the Irtysh River, and is uplifted by the mountains, forming abundant precipitation on the southern slope of the Altai Mountains. After the water flow is generated throughout the source area, it replenishes the runoff through the conservation and purification of forest and grass vegetation, migrates downward according to the topography, and the Irtysh River then flows out of the country, and the Ulungur River eventually merges into the Ulungur Lake. Soil loss occurs in the bare areas of vegetation destruction and the low-coverage areas. Soil migrates with the water flow and is deposited in the rivers and lakes. Pollutants mainly come from mineral development, livestock breeding, agricultural planting, industrial production and living. They are either directly discharged or indirectly infiltrated into the water, and migrate and are transformed with the water flow.
From the perspective of energy flow, the region easily forms valley winds, with energy moving from the bottom to the top of the mountain during the day and from the top to the bottom at night. At the same time, the valley of the Irtysh River also provides an important wind channel for the region. From the perspective of service flow, forests, grasslands, desert steppe, farmlands and wetlands, from the top to the bottom of the mountain, form the source-producing flow area, purifying the confluence area and regulating the service area respectively, which mainly provide water conservation, water quality purification, water supply and regulating functions respectively (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the regional life community

Note: (1) A1: Inland water flow regulation area; A2: Flood regulation and storage area; A3: Riparian buffer zone; A4: Clear water conservation area; A5: Source areas of rivers and lakes; (2) B1: Desert zone; B2: Desert steppe zone; B3: Forest steppe zone; B4: Degraded alpine grassland zone; B5: Euphorbia marginata marsh zone; (3) M1: Controlling desertification and protecting biodiversity; M2: Rehabilitating rivers, lakes and wetlands; M3: Controlling pollution and vegetation restoration; M4: Protecting mountains and forests.

4.3 Designing governance strategies for different zones with the goal of synergistic improvement of ecosystem functions

In the process of implementing ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system, first of all, we should take the characteristics, connections, and problems of the life community as the basis. Then, following the principles of unity, systemicity, and integrity, we can determine the different functional positioning and potential restoration targets according to the ecosystem types corresponding to different functional zones. Finally, we can adopt comprehensive measures and paths to protect and restore regional mountain and forest areas, forest and grassland areas, oasis areas, rivers and lakes, and desert areas.
From the perspective of ecosystem and functional positioning (Fig. 3), the source areas of rivers and lakes are mainly mountain and forest ecosystems, with the main function of source conservation; the clear water conservation area mainly includes oasis and grassland ecosystems, with the main function of clear water maintenance; the riparian buffer zone and flood regulation and storage area mainly consists of rivers, lakes and wetland ecosystems, with the regulation and storage function; and the inland water flow regulation area is mainly desert ecosystems, with the ecological regulation function.
Fig. 3 The concept of ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system
From the perspective of regional overall ecological protection and restoration, we should adopt the target strategies of protecting the source areas of rivers and lakes, strengthening the clear water storage areas, controlling the pollution sources of rivers and lakes, repairing the lifeline of rivers and lakes, and building the desert protection barriers, in order to penetrate the ecological corridors, and improve the governance capacity and ecosystem services.
From the perspective of the measures and paths, we should take the comprehensive measures of protecting mountains and forests, increasing forest areas, controlling pollution, restoring vegetation, rehabilitating rivers, lakes and wetlands, increasing the ecological space of rivers and lakes, controlling desertification, building the desert protection barriers, protecting biodiversity, reducing anthropogenic pressure and enhancing ecological protection and governance capacity, in order to explore the practice of new mechanisms and new models of ecological protection and restoration of the MRFFLG system. This approach is conducive to building a complementary pattern of a healthy and stable natural ecosystem and socio-economic green development. It will also truly change the previous work pattern of “fighting for each other” and improve the efficiency of the use of financial funds. Eventually, it will yield an overall solution to the key technologies for ecological protection and restoration in Altay region.

4.4 Clarifying key engineering tasks in different zones from the perspective of ecosystem service functions

To clarify key engineering tasks, we should implement the concept of “MRFFLG system is a life community”. From the perspective of ecosystem integrity and ecological service function management, we comprehensively consider the ecological connection and coupling process between different elements and different spatial areas in Altay region. Spatial analysis and GIS technology are used to identify the spatial distribution and main structural characteristics of the key areas of the life community. Based on the key factors, such as the regional ecological environment problems, main ecological function positioning, and protection management needs, the implementation area of the ecological protection and restoration project of the MRFFLG system is divided into different areas. Different regional characteristics are identified, the treatment strategies of the different zones are proposed, and the key tasks of the different zones are clarified.
In consideration of the rationality, feasibility, importance and benefits of the project, we put forward seven types of key projects: Mountain ecological conservation function enhancement project, two rivers and one lake ecological protection and restoration project, grassland ecological restoration and sustainable use project, biodiversity protection and desertification control project, oasis ecological function enhancement and livable environment improvement project, life community governance capacity enhancement project, and the two mountains (lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets) transformation path and resource-exhausted mine transformation demonstration project (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 The chart of key projects
The mountain ecological conservation function enhancement project is mainly distributed in the source areas of rivers and lakes. The implementation of this project will improve the ecological environment of mining areas, restore land functions, increase regional forest coverage, expand animal and plant habitats, and enhance water conservation functions. The two rivers and one lake ecological protection and restoration projects are mainly distributed in the riparian buffer zone and the flood regulation and storage area. The implementation of these projects will effectively protect the ecological water quantity of the two rivers and one lake wetlands, improve the safety of the regional water environment, and significantly enhance the health of the river and lake ecosystems.
The grassland ecological restoration and sustainable use projects are mainly distributed in the clear water conservation area. The implementation of these projects will promote the restoration of degraded natural grasslands, reduce the livestock carrying capacity of grasslands, and restore the productivity and storage capacity of grassland vegetation. The biodiversity protection and desertification control projects are distributed throughout the region, and the desertification control project is mainly in the inland water flow regulation area. The implementation of these projects will protect key rare and endangered species and their habitats, and effectively control land sanding.
The oasis ecological function enhancement and livable environment improvement projects are distributed in the clear water conservation area. The implementation of these projects will effectively improve the production and living environment of the oasis. The life community governance capacity enhancement project, and the two mountains (lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets) transformation path and resource-exhausted mine transformation demonstration project are distributed throughout the region. The implementation of these projects will effectively manage abandoned mines, and enhance the scientific and technological support capacity, the monitoring emergency capacity, the climate change mitigation capacity, and the ecological environment governance capacity of the MRFFLG system.

5 Conclusions and discussion

Ecosystem restoration should consider the complexity of the ecosystem, and not just focus on a single indicator or a single dimension of restoration (David et al., 2020). The overall protection, systematic restoration and comprehensive management of MRFFLG systems have become the key tasks and basic conceptual pursuits of ecological protection and restoration in China (Zou et al., 2018). Aiming at the ecological protection and restoration of Altay region, this study constructs an analytical framework for ecological protection and restoration of this MRFFLG system. Starting from the identification of the coupling relationship of the life community, a zoning governance pattern is established from the perspective of ecosystem integrity. We then clarify the functional positioning and restoration objectives, adopt different zoning governance strategies in an integrated manner, and deploy seven major types of key projects to enhance regional ecological security, which provides important guidance for ecological protection and restoration in Altay region.
The development of NbS has experienced a progression from theoretical research to concrete practice (Wang et al., 2020), and has achieved good project implementation results in tackling climate change, watershed ecological management, forest ecological restoration, wetland ecological restoration, and biodiversity conservation (European Commission, 2015; Cohen-Schacham et al., 2016). However, most of these cases are focused on a single ecosystem, and there are few applications for implementing major ecological conservation and restoration projects in multiple ecosystem types. The ecological protection and restoration of MRFFLG systems not only carries out research on a large spatial scale, but also fully considers the complexity of the ecosystems, and proposes systematic solutions, which will further enrich the ecological protection and restoration method system.
Ecological protection and restoration of MRFFLG systems can achieve significant ecological, economic and social benefits, but there are some areas for improvement (Luo et al., 2019). It is necessary to continuously explore new mechanisms, new models and new methods in the process of practical application (Shao et al., 2020). On the one hand, we should learn from the latest concepts and methods of NbS, and coordinate the priorities and objectives of regional ecological protection from a system perspective. On the other hand, we should absorb the advanced technology and means of foreign ecological restoration efforts in the design of ecological protection and restoration projects. In practice, we should follow the law of ecosystem resilience, strengthen the study of ecosystem resilience, implement the principle of “natural restoration first” (Luo et al., 2019), and reasonably choose the measures of natural regeneration, ecological conservation, assisted regeneration and ecological reconstruction according to the degree of ecosystem damage and resilience, in order to restore the structure and function of the ecosystem and enhance the stability of the ecosystem.
At the same time, ecological protection and restoration should pay attention to the temporal dimension. One of the guidelines of NbS requires practitioners to be able to carry out the project on a time scale of decades, thus ensuring that the ecosystem can be better restored. Taking the dynamic changes of the ecosystem into consideration, it is necessary to carry out dynamic monitoring and evaluation of important projects, and appropriately extend the project implementation period to form a long-term management mechanism that will enhance the restoration effect (Yang et al., 2020). Besides, the ecological protection and restoration of an MRFFLG system involves many ecosystems and should increase the participation of multiple parties. NbS also emphasizes the full participation of stakeholders (Yang et al., 2020). In addition to all relevant government departments, the participation of scientific research institutions, enterprises, the public and other diverse subjects should be further mobilized in the future, to continuously improve the participation, effectiveness and economy of ecological protection and restoration (Yang and Cao, 2019).

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